Social exclusion

Definitions and different understandings of social exclusion

Page contents

What are the socially excluded excluded from?
Multidimensionality
Key debates and the concept of ‘social inclusion’

What are the socially excluded excluded from?

The term ‘social exclusion’ first originated in Europe, where there has tended to be a greater emphasis on spatial exclusion. There is also a policy focus on those living in ‘deprived areas’, where poor housing, inadequate social services, weak political voice and lack of decent work all combine to create an experience of marginalisation.

However, there are various understandings of social exclusion and integration. In the seminal article below, Hilary Silver highlights these, and illustrates how they stem from analysts’ own backgrounds and political traditions.

Silver, H., 1994, ‘Social Exclusion and Social Solidarity: Three Paradigms’, International Labour Review, Volume 133, Numbers 5-6, pp531-578
How are we to understand the new social problems that have arisen as a result of the economic restructuring of advanced capitalist democracies since the mid-1970s? This article identifies three conflicting paradigms within which different meanings of social exclusion are embedded – solidarity, specialisation and monopoly. These derive from the political ideologies of Republicanism, liberalism and social democracy. While the idea of exclusion may help to focus attention on certain social categories, it may also distract attention from general rises in inequality and undermine universal approaches to social protection.
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Social exclusion is a socially constructed concept, and can depend on an idea of what is considered ‘normal’. In many developing countries, where most people do not enjoy an acceptable standard of living, defining what is ‘normal’ is not a simple task, especially given the lack of the welfare state and a formalised labour market. Indeed, as social exclusion can be structured around hierarchy, the exclusion of people on the basis of their race, caste or gender, may be viewed by the society excluding them as ‘normal’. As such, the concept of social exclusion is contested, in that it is often difficult to ‘objectively’ identify who is socially excluded, as it is a matter of the criteria adopted and the judgements used.

Saith, R., 2007, ‘Social Exclusion: The Concept and Application to Developing Countries’ in Stewart, F., Saith, R. and Harriss-White, B., (eds.), ‘Defining Poverty in the Developing World’, Palgrave, pp. 75-90
What is social exclusion? How has the concept been applied in developing countries? This chapter explains that in developed countries social exclusion has been defined in relation to the welfare state and formal employment. Attempts to adapt the concept for the developing world have led to the repetition and relabelling of earlier poverty studies. Rather than trying to transplant the concept, therefore, elements such as its helpful focus on process could be incorporated into existing frameworks.
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Social exclusion can also been seen as a part of Sen’s capability approach, which is based on the ideas of ‘functionings’ and ‘capabilities’. ‘Functionings’ are those things that an individual is able to do or be in leading a life, such as having a healthy body, being educated, having self-respect, participating in community life, etc. ‘Capabilities’ are combinations of various functionings which allow an individual to lead the kind of life he or she values. Social exclusion can thus be seen as a process leading to a state in which it is more difficult for certain individuals and groups to achieve certain ‘functionings’. The impossibility of reaching a functioning leads to a state of deprivation, and the ‘state’ of social exclusion can be defined as a combination of deprivations.

Sen, A., 2000, ‘Social Exclusion: Concept, Application, and Scrutiny', Asian Development Bank
What new insight into poverty – if any – is provided by the approach of social exclusion? This paper scrutinises the nature, relevance and reach of the idea of social exclusion, as well as its usefulness outside the European context in which it arose, with a focus on Asia. It argues that this approach does indeed offer useful insights for poverty diagnostics and policy, if used with discrimination and scrutiny.
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Multidimensionality

Social exclusion is multidimensional, and can encompass a lack of access to employment, legal redress and markets; a lack of political voice; and poor social relationships. Therefore, it is not enough to examine these issues individually; the links between must be explored.

De Haan, A., 1999, ‘Social Exclusion: Towards an Holistic Understanding of Deprivation’, Department for International Development, London
What are the conceptual merits of the notion of social exclusion, and how relevant is it for developing countries? This paper considers the usefulness of social exclusion as a framework for understanding deprivation. It argues that the value of the concept lies in focusing attention on two central elements of deprivation: its multidimensionality and the processes and social relations that underlie it.
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Bhalla, A. and Lapeyre, F., 1997, ‘Social Exclusion: Towards an Analytical and Operational Framework’, Development and Change, Volume 28, pp. 413-433
What is the difference between poverty and social exclusion? How can the concept of social exclusion be used as a tool for policy-making? This paper argues that social exclusion overlaps with poverty but goes beyond it by explicitly embracing the relational as well as the distributional aspects of poverty. The concept has universal validity although it has not gained much attention in developing countries. An analytical framework should establish the interrelationships between the social, economic and political dimensions of exclusion.
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Social exclusion also sees deprivation and lack of participation as stemming from factors beyond low income.

Burchardt T., Le Grand J., and Piachaud D., 2002, 'Introduction', in Hills, J., Le Grand, J. and Piachaud, D., Understanding Social Exclusion, Oxford University Press, Oxford
What are the different approaches to analysing and understanding social exclusion? There are three main approaches to social exclusion and these emphasise the roles of: individuals; institutions and systems; and discrimination and lack of enforced rights. Given the complexity of influences on individuals, however, a broad perspective is most helpful.
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Fischer, A., 2011, ‘Reconceiving Social Exclusion’, BWPI Working Paper 146, Brooks World Poverty Institute, Manchester
This paper argues that social exclusion should be clearly differentiated from poverty. It proposes a reconceptualisation of social exclusion, not as a static state, but as 'structural, institutional or agentive processes of repulsion or obstruction'. This definition encompasses processes occurring vertically throughout social hierarchies, not just in their lower strata. It enables social exclusion to inform analyses of stratification, segregation and subordination, especially within contexts of high or rising inequality. Three strengths of this redefinition of social exclusion are that it can be applied to situations: 1) where exclusions lead to stratifying or impoverishing trajectories without any short-term poverty outcomes; 2) where the upward mobility of poor people is hindered by exclusions occurring among the non-poor; and 3) to situations of inequality-induced conflict.
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Key debates and the concept of ‘social inclusion’

One critique of social exclusion as a concept is that it is based on what Hickey and du Toit (2007, see below) call an “underlying moral meta-narrative” (p. 3), which assumes that social inclusion or integration, as the opposite of social exclusion, is inherently good and desirable. As a result, efforts to tackle exclusion can often be led by implicit normative assumptions about how social life should be organised. This often ignores the ways in which the terms of inclusion can be problematic, disempowering or inequitable.

Adverse incorporation

The concept of ‘adverse incorporation’ sees poverty and inequality as a result, primarily, of unequal economic and power relations, thus requiring efforts to change the societal, political and economic dynamics that keep people disadvantaged. Many impoverished and exploited people are in fact included, but on highly adverse terms. Indeed, total exclusion on any dimension is rare, and so adverse incorporation might be a preferable term to social exclusion for many situations.

Hickey, S. and du Toit, A., 2007, ‘Adverse Incorporation, Social Exclusion and Chronic Poverty’, Working Paper 81, Chronic Poverty Research Centre, University of Manchester
How do the processes of adverse incorporation and social exclusion (AISE) underpin chronic poverty? This paper examines the politics and economy of poverty’s causal processes over time. Challenging AISE involves a shift from policy to politics and from specific anti-poverty interventions to longer-term development strategies. Particular attention should be given to: industrialisation and labour market restructuring; moves towards developmental states; and supporting shifts from clientelism to citizenship.
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See also: CPRC research summary

Social integration

Social integration has been defined as “the process of promoting the values, relations and institutions that enable all people to participate in social, economic and political life on the basis of equality of rights, equity and dignity” (UN Expert Group Meeting on Promoting Social Integration: Draft Summary, Finland, July 8-10 2008, p.2). However, social integration can also imply integration on poor terms (like adverse incorporation), and cultural homogenisation.

Ferguson, C., 2008, 'Promoting Social Integration: Background Paper for Discussion', Report commissioned by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) for the Expert Group Meeting on Promoting Social Integration, Helsinki, Finland, 8-10 July
What are the policy instruments that provide the most coherent and consistent cross-sectoral approach to social integration? This paper reviews policy instruments and institutions that promote social integration, finding that the human rights framework provides the most effective basis for policy development. This framework can help to resolve some of the tensions between conflicting processes.
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Voluntary exclusion

Some minority groups voluntarily exclude themselves from wider society. This phenomenon should be distinguished from social exclusion, which occurs for reasons that are beyond the control of those subject to it.

Barry, B., 1998, ‘Social Exclusion, Social Isolation and Distribution of Income’, Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion, London School of Economics, London
While social exclusion is unquestionably closely associated with poverty, is it inextricably linked? Can a community marked by significant inequalities of power and status still be socially integrated? This paper discusses the relationships between social exclusion, justice and solidarity, with a particular focus on class systems within the USA and Britain. Despite varying income distribution, government policies targeting inequality and favouring social solidarity can promote an integrated society.
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