Service delivery

Service delivery in conflict and fragile contexts

It has been estimated that 500 million people live in fragile or conflict affected environments. These countries generally experience long-term, complex difficulties so it is not possible to wait until conflict or fragility has passed before addressing problems with basic service delivery. Historically governments have been bypassed in these environments, and services have been delivered by non-state actors. However, there is a growing consensus that service delivery can improve the legitimacy of weak governments and help to build capacity in fragile states. Several donors therefore argue that the state should play an important role in service delivery from as early as possible. By improving state capacity and legitimacy, good service delivery can play a conflict mitigating role by reducing tension and grievances over services between conflicting groups.

Page Contents:

Introduction
Links between services and conflict
Donor guidance
Local capacity building
Sector specific literature
Statebuilding
Case studies

Introduction

Although still a nascent area of research, the effective provision of services in conflict affected or fragile contexts is receiving more attention by both donors and academics:

OECD DAC, 2008, 'Service Delivery in Fragile Situations: Key Concepts, Findings and Lessons', Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Paris
How can service delivery be strengthened in the context of a fragile state? This report reviews evidence on the impact of state fragility on service delivery. Donors should tailor interventions to context, maintain a long-term focus on governance and state-building and manage transition and hand-back sensitively. Efforts at national government level need to be balanced with programmes linked to local authorities and communities.
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Van De Walle, S. and Scott, Z., 2009, ‘The Role of Public Services in State- and Nation-building: Exploring Lessons from European History’, GSDRC Research Paper, Governance and Social Development Resource Centre, Birmingham
What role can public service delivery play in state-building? This article explores lessons from Western European history to argue that the design of public services is a far more political matter than is often recognised. Rather than being a neutral process, a historical review of service provision shows that it has been used as a political tool for building state legitimacy and concepts of nationhood. The paper concludes that donors need to rethink their approaches to service provision in fragile states in light of these findings.
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Baird, M., 2010, ‘Service Delivery in Fragile and Conflict-Affected States’, Background Paper for the World Development Report
Can the delivery of basic services help to promote lasting stability and peace in fragile and conflict-affected states (FCAS)? Drawing on 40 case studies, this paper argues that successful delivery of basic services can contribute to broader political legitimacy and stability. Donors, government and non-state actors can provide a virtuous circle of improving services, increasing public expectation and creating greater will to avoid violent conflict. However, to avoid aggravating conflict, service delivery improvements must form part of an informed process of activities that address the inequities created by conflict. A key lesson is to nurture strong leadership that is committed to security, justice and equity.
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Titeca, K., and de Herdt, T., 2011, 'Real Governance Beyond the 'Failed State': Negotiating Education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo', African Affairs, vol. 110, no. 439, pp. 213-231
How are state services governed even when the state administration has retreated from the public domain? Failed states are often described as a vacuum of authority, yet although there is often no overall regulatory authority, this does not mean that sectors are ungoverned. This article describes the organisation of the educational system in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) as the result of negotiation processes between state and non-state actors. It argues that instead of producing uniform results, this form of regulation depends on power configurations in particular localities at particular times.
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Links between services and conflict

If services are improved in a way that promotes equality and inclusiveness, service delivery interventions in conflict environments can act as a tool for peace-building. Service delivery can strengthen the representation of excluded people, for example through user groups. Reducing inequalities in access to basic services reduces potential causes for violent conflict between groups.

Vaux, T. and Visman, E., 2005, ‘Service Delivery in Countries Emerging from Conflict’, Centre for International Co-operation and Security (CICS), Department of Peace Studies, University of Bradford, report prepared for UK Department for International Development (DFID)
What is the role of service delivery in promoting social and political pro-poor change? How does it contribute to the avoidance of future conflict? How does it strengthen institutions in countries emerging from conflict? This report examines service delivery in Mozambique, Uganda, Cambodia and East Timor. It looks at the relationship between service delivery and violent conflict, showing how it changes. It tries to determine appropriate and sustainable service delivery systems.
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Eldon J., and Waddington, C., 2008, 'Health System Reconstruction: Can it Contribute to State-building?', Health and Fragile States Network, London
Can rebuilding health systems in fragile states strengthen the social contract and contribute to wider state-building? This study commissioned by the Health and Fragile States Network, which included fieldwork in Nigeria and Sierra Leone, finds that health sector strengthening can contribute to state-building in the health sector, but that its impact on wider state-building remains unclear. There may be more scope for wider state-building and the strengthening of the state-society compact through decentralised and 'bottom up' approaches. Context is the key influencer of potential for state-building, but is often inadequately understood.
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Donor guidance

Some of the most repeated advice to donors supporting service delivery in fragile states is to coordinate their interventions, take a long-term approach, build local capacity, foster local involvement and target marginalised groups.

OECD, 2006, ‘Synthesis Paper on Good Practice: The Challenge for Donors’, draft, OECD Fragile States Group, Workstream on Service Delivery, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris
Fragile states usually fail to deliver basic services. At the same time, state fragility can be reduced by programmes to improve service delivery systems. This draft synthesis paper argues that the linkages between fragility and services - notably around relationships of accountability - create the opportunity for donors to address both service delivery and governance through integrated or linked approaches. Such approaches must take into account the dynamic nature of fragile states. Donors thus need to constantly study the specific country context.
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A major difficulty for donors working in these environments is how to balance short-term needs to provide services quickly and efficiently to poor and marginalised groups, with longer-term aims to reform local public institutions so that they are capable of effectively delivering basic services to all of their citizens.

Vergeer, P., Canavan, A., and Rothmann, I., 2009, ‘A Rethink on the Use of Aid Mechanisms in Health Sector Early Recovery’, Development Policy and Practice, Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), Amsterdam
What role should aid mechanisms play in the early recovery of weakened health sectors? This paper argues that flexible, experimental solutions are best suited to achieving the multiple objectives and delivery strategies of a developing health system. Aid effectiveness in this area has lagged because of an over-emphasis on gradually transitioning from 'humanitarian' mechanisms to 'developmental' ones, rather than a simultaneous approach. Although management concerns and design questions always influence aid delivery, they are even more central in early recovery situations. Progress will result from deeper coordination of the aid mechanisms deployed, and the use of key donor comparative advantages in technical and operational areas.
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Local capacity building

It is critical that communities in conflict-affected environments are engaged in service delivery project design and management in a meaningful way. This is vital for ensuring local ownership of projects and can help to build local capacity.

Hamill, K., and Ali-Ahmad, Z., 2007, ‘Local Government in Post-Conflict Situations: Lebanon Case Study’, Annex 21 from the Workshop on Local Government in Post-Conflict Situations: Challenges for Improving Local Decision Making and Service Delivery Capacities, UNDP Oslo Governance Centre, Oslo, 28-29 November
How can donors contribute to sustainable post-conflict recovery and service delivery through support for local government? This paper identifies lessons using post-2006 Lebanon as a case study. International actors can respond to a post-conflict situation while simultaneously building the capacity of local government. Local government can be used to reach beneficiaries comprehensively and systematically.
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Slaymaker, T., Christiansen, K. and Hemming, I., 2005, ‘Community-Based Approaches and Service Delivery: Issues and Options in Difficult Environments and Partnerships’, Overseas Development Institute, London
What are the challenges in implementing community-based approaches (CBAs) in difficult environments? How do they relate to wider service delivery (SD) objectives? This paper for the Department for International Development UK (DFID) analyses the different objectives between CBA and SD, and the challenges of linking these objectives in aid dependant post-conflict states. CBA can contribute to broader SD objectives, but there needs to be more clarity about its limits, and more realism about what is achievable within the operational context. Donors need to rethink relating externally-funded activities to national systems in difficult environments in order to develop the structures that support CBAs.
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Dijkzeul, D., 2005, ‘Models for Service Delivery in Conflict-affected Environments: Drawing Lessons from the Experience of the Ushirika/GBV Partnership Programmes in the Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo’, International Rescue Committee, London
How can service delivery be effective in conflict-affected environments? This report for the International Rescue Committee (IRC) analyses the Ushirika/GBV partnership programmes in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It compares the IRC approach with five other organisations working in the country.
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Sector specific literature

Whilst several issues relating to service provision in difficult environments are relevant across all services, there are some inherent differences between each of the sectors. The following documents address particular issues of concern in attempting to provide basic services in health, education, and water and sanitation in fragile contexts.

Oswald, S., and Clewett, J., 2007, ‘Delivering health services in fragile states and difficult environments: 13 key principles’, Health Unlimited, London
What is needed to extend appropriate, effective healthcare to the under-served in fragile states and difficult environments? This paper draws on case studies from Burma/Myanmar, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Peru and Somaliland. Flexibility, understanding of a given context, the establishment of trust and long-term commitment are key to improving health outcomes. Targeting support to marginalised communities fosters a trickle-up effect, also providing improved service delivery to others along the 'marginalisation' continuum.
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Berry, C., 2009, ‘A framework for assessing the effectiveness of the delivery of education aid in fragile states’, Journal of Education for International Development, 4:1, April
How can the effectiveness of education aid in fragile states be assessed and improved? This paper presents an assessment framework based on OECD principles of coordination, state building and 'do no harm'. The framework is applied to four approaches to education aid (sector-wide approaches, trust funds, social funds, and UN-led approaches). No single approach will provide all the answers. Planning structures that include a wide range of stakeholders are particularly important in fragile state contexts.
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Pavanello, S., 2008, ‘Improving the Provision of Basic Services for the Poor in Fragile Environments: Education Sector International Literature Review’, Report prepared for the AusAID Office of Development, Effectiveness by the Humanitarian Policy Group, Overseas Development Institute, London
How can donors and partner governments best support the provision of education in fragile environments? This literature review is one of three sectoral reports from the Overseas Development Institute on service delivery in fragile states. Education offers opportunities for addressing root causes of state fragility, but remains a marginalised element of international humanitarian response. Engagement with the state should be a question of degree. Even in the most difficult cases, there is room to experiment with approaches that address both immediate needs and longer-term statebuilding.
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Welle, K., 2008, ‘Improving the Provision of Basic Services for the Poor in Fragile Environments: Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene International Literature Review’, Report prepared for the AusAID Office of Development Effectiveness by the Humanitarian Policy Group, Overseas Development Institute, London
How can donors and partner governments best support the provision of water, sanitation and hygiene in fragile environments? This literature review is one of three sectoral reports from the Overseas Development Institute on service delivery in fragile states. It confirms that water supply service delivery in fragile states remains limited. Documentation on sanitation and hygiene issues in these environments is virtually non-existent. The water sector is a good entry point for state-building, but approaches depend on the type and context of state fragility.
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Statebuilding

Recently there has been increasing debate and research into the effect of non-state service provision on the state-building processes in fragile situations. Service provision which avoids the state can meet short-term needs but undermine state legitimacy and capacity in the long term. Current literature suggests involving the state gradually, starting with activities that are least likely to jeopardise service provision.

Batley, R., and Mcloughlin, C., 2010, ‘Engagement with Non-State Service Providers in Fragile States: Reconciling State-Building and Service Delivery’, Development Policy Review, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 131-154
The OECD questions whether non-state services in fragile states may delegitimise the state in the eyes of citizens, arguing that 'state-building' depends on governments' engagement in service management. This article reviews the available evidence to identify what types of engagement are feasible and most likely to contribute to service delivery, or not to damage it. It considers the capacity requirements and the risks associated with state intervention through policy formulation, regulation, contracting and mutual agreements, and concludes by identifying ways of incrementally involving the state, beginning with activities that are least likely to do harm to non-state provision.
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Practical Action, Save the Children, and CfBT Education Trust, 2011, 'State-Building, Peace-Building and Service Delivery in Fragile and Conflict-Affected States: Literature Review', UK Department for International Development
This review finds that, according to the literature: 1) service delivery can contribute positively and negatively to state-building and peace-building; 2) citizens’ expectations of service delivery vary in different sectors; 3) different types of provision (state versus non-state) may have a different impact on legitimacy through visibility; 4) equitable service delivery is important; and 5) a simultaneous focus on both service delivery and state-building is challenging. The review identifies critical gaps in the literature in preparation for further research.
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See the Service Delivery and State building chapter within the Fragile States Topic Guide for further information.

Case studies

BMZ, 2006, ‘Observations on Service Delivery in Fragile States and Situations – The German Perspective’, Special 145, German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), Bonn
How can donors co-operate effectively with fragile states to secure basic services whilst improving governance? This paper assesses the state of service delivery in Eritrea, Cote d’Ivoire, Nepal, Guatemala and Yemen. It suggests that development agencies need to stay engaged even under poor conditions. When partnerships with the state are difficult, donors can co-operate with civil society and the private sector, while making contacts within the government to begin the process of state-building.
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Zivetz, L., 2006, 'Health Service Delivery in Early Recovery Fragile States: Lessons from Afghanistan, Cambodia, Mozambique, and Timor Leste', United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and BASICS, Washington
What are the impacts of foreign assistance on state stewardship of the health sector in early recovery fragile states? How can foreign aid encourage better state performance? This case study finds that donors have undermined state capacity to regulate service delivery by creating a two-track system. Promising approaches to support state stewardship include: contracting with NGOs; equity funds; civil service performance-based reform; sectoral plans; and budget support. Increased donor harmonisation is also important.
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Berry, C. and Igboemeka, A, 2004, ‘Service Provision in Difficult Environments: Issues Arising from DFID Support to Health Sector Interventions in Burma, Afghanistan and Nepal’, Department for International Development, London
What are the key ways in which the international community can overcome “difficult partnerships” with states? How can the design and implementation of sectoral policies have the maximum positive impact on poor people? What forms and channels of aid exist to allow the involvement of the international community without aggravating social and political divisions? This DFID paper uses three DFID-funded health sector interventions to answer these questions.
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Moreno-Torres, M., 2005, ‘Service Delivery in a Difficult Environment: The Child-friendly Community Initiative in Sudan’, Department for International Development, London
The UNICEF-sponsored Child-Friendly Community Initiative (CFCI) represents an integrated, multi-sectoral and community-driven approach for the delivery of basic services to poor and vulnerable people in Sudan. What are the main achievements of CFCI? How does it differ from other donor interventions aiming to enhance service delivery? This case study examines the effectiveness of the CFCI approach and attempts to draw lessons for donors on service delivery in other fragile states.
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