Political systems

Participation

Donors support political participation as a means of improving state accountability and responsiveness, and empowering the poor. But have democratisation processes really increased political participation, particularly pro-poor participation? If not, what are the barriers to such participation?

Political participation can involve activities ranging from voting in elections or joining a union, to discussing politics with friends or engaging in community self-help initiatives. This page takes a deliberately broad view; defining participation as all voluntary activities that aim to influence political decisions at all levels of the political system. This includes conformist participatory activities like party membership or electoral campaigning and non-conformist activities, such as strikes and demonstrations.

Page contents

Political participation
Voting
Barriers to participation
Gender and participation
Civic education
Useful websites

Political participation

To what extent has democratisation increased the participation of citizens, particularly the poor, in political decision-making? Are certain forms of political participation likely to generate greater responsiveness than others?

Mechanisms that ensure meaningful participation can enhance the capacity of a government to design appropriate policies and deliver effective and appropriate services. But the nature and outcomes of participation are deeply affected by the political economy and socio-cultural conditions in which participation occurs.

Manor, J., 2004, 'Democratization with Inclusion: Political Reforms and People's Empowerment at the Grassroots', Journal of Human Development, volume 5, issue 1, pp. 5 -29
In recent years, many governments in developing countries have undertaken political reforms to promote the empowerment and inclusion of ordinary people, especially the poor. However, this process has not automatically benefited poor people. This Journal of Human Development article reviews these reforms and looks at how they can be measured and facilitated.
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Blomkvist, H., 2003, 'Participation, Social Interaction, and the Quality of Democracy in India', Paper presented at the annual meeting of The American Political Science Association, 28 - 31 August, Philadelphia
Is government responsiveness to citizen’s demands affected by different types of political participation? Is responsiveness affected by social interaction and does it depend on historically evolved political structures? This paper from Uppsala University, Sweden draws on evidence gathered from 3,200 personal interviews with citizens in five Indian states; Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Kerala and West Bengal in exploring these questions.
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Blom, A., 2002, 'Ambiguous Political Space: Chiefs, Land and the Poor in Rural Mozambique', chapter 5 in In the Name of the Poor: Contesting Political Space for Poverty Reduction, eds. N. Webster and L. Engberg-Pedersen, Zed Books, New York
Institutional channels through which poor people can influence policies and decision-making are often limited or absent in Africa. To what extent are chiefs being used to access political space for the interests of poor people? This book chapter examines this question in relation to Angonia, in rural Mozambique. It is necessary to look beyond formal institutions to determine access to decision-making for and by the poor. Chiefs can protect the interests of the poor, but remain a weak channel for influencing political decisions at the national level.
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Alatas, V., Pritchett, L. and Wetterberg, A., 2002, 'Voice Lessons: Local Government Organizations, Social Organizations, and the Quality of Local Governance', Working Paper 2981, World Bank, Washington D.C.
Is all citizen participation a good thing? Or, do certain types of citizen participation improve local governance more than others? This paper, from the World Bank’s Local Level Institutions study of local life in villages in rural Indonesia, examines the relationship between the involvement of villagers in social activities and the quality of local governance.
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Taylor, M., 2011, ‘Strengthening the Voice of the Poor: Faith-Based Organizations' Engagement in Policy Consultation Processes in Nigeria and Tanzania’, Working Paper 61, Religions and Development Research Programme, University of Birmingham
This paper reports on pilot projects in Nigeria and Tanzania that tested the potential for religious organisations to engage collaboratively in policy consultation processes. The cases showed that Faith-Based Organisations can cooperate across religious and denominational divides to assemble grassroots data on issues central to Poverty Reduction Strategy Processes (and their successors), analyse findings and present them to government. They demonstrate that similar projects could be implemented more widely. Positive influences on policy depend, among other things, on the power relations within religious organisations and between faith communities and the state.
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Michels, A., 2011, 'Innovations in Democratic Governance: How Does Citizen Participation Contribute to a Better Democracy?', International Review of Administrative Sciences, vol. 77, no. 2 pp. 275-293
This study examines citizen participation in various Western countries. It shows that citizen involvement produces a number of benefits, which vary according to the type of democratic innovation. However, since these positive effects are perceptible only to those taking part, and the number of participants is often small, the benefits to individual democratic citizenship are far more conclusive than the benefits to democracy as a whole.
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Toolkit

OECD, 2001, 'Citizens as Partners; OECD Handbook on Information, Consultation and Public Participation in Policy Making', Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris
This OECD Handbook explores the background, pressure and objectives for governments seeking to become engaged in informing, consulting and engaging citizens in policy-making. It presents an overview of current state-of-the-art practices in this area, focussing particularly on the potential of information and communication technology (ICT) as a tool to achieve this.
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Further resources

‘Creating Participatory Spaces’ in Voice and Accountability Topic Guide
IDS/Ford Foundation Research on 'Participation and National Policy': These case studies, published in 2007, asked under what conditions citizen engagement with the state contributes to the formation and implementation of national level policies, which have a positive impact on the lives of poor and excluded people.

Voting

The following resources specifically consider the issue of voting, and the socio-economic and political factors associated with electoral participation and the ability of citizens to hold governments to account.

Kersting, N. and Sperberg, J., 2003, 'Political Participation', chapter 7 in Poverty and Democracy: Self-help and Political Participation in Third World Cities, eds. D. Berg-Schlosser and N. Kersting, Zed Books, London
Has the wave of democratisation that occurred between the 1980s and 1990s enhanced the participation of the rural poor in political life? Has the right to vote made a real difference to their lives? This study published in ‘Poverty and Democracy’ defines different ‘types’ of political participation by looking at four countries in Latin America and Africa. Ultimately, the role of democratisation and free elections in the lives of the urban poor is conditioned by specific institutional, socio-economic, political and cultural factors.
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Kuenzi, M. and Lambright, G., 2005, 'Who Votes in Africa? An Examination of Electoral Turnout in 10 African Countries', Afrobarometer Working Paper no. 51, Cape Town
The question of who votes in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is yet to receive attention in the political science literature. This paper from Afrobarometer seeks to identify the factors associated with electoral participation in SSA using survey data from 10 countries. Several variables including age, education, gender, attitudes and beliefs are found to have a different effect on voting patterns than they do in Western countries.
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Bratton, M., and Logan, C., 2006, 'Voters but not yet Citizens: The Weak Demand for Vertical Accountability in Africa's Unclaimed Democracies', Afrobarometer Working Paper no. 63, Cape Town
Why has democracy failed to secure better governance and accountability in Africa? This article from Afrobarometer finds that how Africans understand their own roles and responsibilities for securing vertical democratic accountability – between leaders and the public – is important. Democracy in Africa remains unclaimed by ‘voters’ who have embraced multiparty elections but failed to grasp their rights as ‘citizens’ - notably to regularly demand accountability from leaders.
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Young, D., 2009, ‘Is Clientelism at Work in African Elections? A Study of Voting Behaviour in Kenya and Zambia’, Working Paper no. 106, Afrobarometer
Does clientelism play a major role in the voting decisions of African elections? Which factors are most important to African voters when choosing a candidate to vote for? This Afrobarometer working paper argues that clientelism is not a major factor in voting decisions. Instead, voters focus on issues relating to the provision of local public goods and the frequency of an MP's visits to the constituency.
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Barriers to participation

There are many barriers to political participation for the poor, including illiteracy, institutionalised sexism and lack of time. It is essential that development practitioners are realistic about the level of participation that is practically possible for poor communities and that participation projects are designed taking potential barriers into account.

Golooba-Mutebi, F., 2004, 'Reassessing Popular Participation in Uganda', Public Administration and Development, vol. 24, no. 4 , pp. 289-304
Is participation a sustainable tool for promoting good governance in developing countries? To what extent should the political history and the socio-cultural context be taken into account in efforts to promote participation? This article by the University of the Witwatersrand is an account of the evolution of village councils and popular participation in Uganda. It questions the feasibility and utility of popular participation as an administrative and policymaking device.
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Putzel, J., 2004, 'The Politics of 'Participation: Civil Society, the State and Development Assistance', Crisis States Discussion Paper no. 1, Development Studies Institute, London
What kind of participation may promote poverty reduction? What should donor attitudes be concerning the promotion of ‘participation’ and ‘participatory processes’ of decision-making? This paper by the London School of Economics suggests that discussions about promoting participation must start from, and engage with, the realities of how and where ordinary and poor people actually are organised.
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Denhardt, J., et al., 2009, ‘Barriers to Citizen Engagement in Developing Countries’, International Journal of Public Administration, vol. 32, no. 14, pp. 1268-1288
This paper consider the impact on developing nations of external incentives; the absence of democratic culture and civil society; profound poverty; time pressures and demands for immediate results; and the lack of an institutional infrastructure. Existing international aid programs may, in some instances, actually work to thwart citizen engagement efforts. The paper suggests how a realistic recognition of the barriers to citizen engagement in developing countries can inform international efforts to foster democratic governance.
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Gender and participation

How well are women’s interests represented through political institutions? What can be done to increase women’s participation? The following resources examine barriers to the participation of women in formal and informal political systems. They also look at mechanisms for and outcomes of increasing such participation.

Goetz, A. M., 2002, ‘Women’s Political Effectiveness – A Conceptual Framework’, Chapter 2 in No Shortcuts to Power: African Women in Politics and Policymaking, Zed Books
How can women's interests and gender equality be advanced through political institutions? How do political institutions affect the nature of women's leadership, influence on decision-making, and the chances that they will promote a gender-equality agenda? This book chapter reveals that the political effectiveness of women depends upon the nature of women's engagement in a range of institutions in civil society, political society (parties and trade unions), and the state itself. It is key that women move beyond simple access to these institutions, and seek instead to transform accountability systems within them so that power-holders (including women political representatives) answer to women, and answer for gender equality.
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Cornwall, A. and Goetz, A. M., 2005, ‘Democratising Democracy: Feminist Perspectives’, Democratization, Vol. 12, No. 5, pp. 783-800
Increasing numbers of women have gained entry to formal political spaces. To what extent has this translated into their political influence, or into gains in policies that redress gendered inequities and inequalities? This article, from Democratization, explores the factors that affect and enable women’s political effectiveness in different democratic arenas. It argues that women’s political interests are not necessarily influenced by sex, but by their “political apprenticeship”, or pathway into politics. To enhance the potential of women’s political participation, democracy itself must be democratized; including building new pathways into politics.
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Lindberg, S. I., 2004, 'Women's Empowerment and Democratization: The Effects of Electoral Systems, Participation, and Experience in Africa', Studies in Comparative International Development, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 28-53.
What effect do different electoral systems have on women’s legislative representation? How do increased political participation and the accumulation of experience facilitate the political empowerment of women? This article from the journal 'Studies in Comparative International Development' demonstrates the value of studying gender relations under democratisation and suggests that electoral institutions can travel across cultures with constant effects.
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Hicks, J., 2011, 'Strengthening Women's Participation in Local Governance: Lessons and Strategies', Community Development Journal, vol. 46, no. S1, pp.36-50
To what extent do South Africa's municipal participation mechanisms enable meaningful engagement in development planning and local governance by poor or marginalised women? What interventions or alternative approaches are required? This article finds a disconnect between women's experience and knowledge and state policy and programmatic responses. It proposes two, formally linked, strategies to address this problem: 1) the creation of women-only forums, supported by training, to enable women to develop recommendations; and 2) the input of those recommendations into formal participation structures and processes.
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Johnson, D., Kabuchu, H. and Vusiya, S., 2003, 'Women in Ugandan Local Government: The Impact of Affirmative Action', Gender and Development, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 8-18
Since the mid-1990s, the Ugandan government has introduced legislation to ensure that women are represented on local councils. What has changed as a result of this affirmative action? This article for Gender and Development looks at both the positive and negative impact of women’s presence in local government. It finds that although there is now greater acceptance of women community leaders, their influence over public decision making remains limited.
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Amer, M., 2009, ‘Political Awareness and its Implications on Participatory Behaviour: A Study of Naga Women Voters in Nagaland’, Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 16, pp.359-374
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Fleschenberg, A., 2009, ‘Afghanistan’s Parliament in the Making: Gendered Understandings and Practices of Politics in a Transitional Country’, Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung, Berlin and UNIFEM
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Tadros, M., 2011, 'Working Politically Behind Red Lines: Structure and agency in a comparative study of women's coalitions in Egypt and Jordan', Developmental Leadership Program
How can the international community advance gender equality in socially conservative contexts through effective support to women's coalitions? This report looks at how six collective initiatives in Egypt and Jordan have formed and worked politically to advance gender equality. It argues that engaging in informal 'backstage' politics is as important as formal channels of engagement in these 'closed' political spaces. The international community plays a critical role in supporting women's coalitions. Donors have provided some positive support, but there is room for improvement.
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Civic education

Donor enthusiasm to promote political participation has often resulted in 'civic education' programmes that aim to enhance citizenship and participation in the recipient country. However, after decades of donor investment in civic education programmes, recent research is showing mixed results.

Sabatini, C. and Finkel, S., 2002, 'Adult Civic Education in Developing Democracies: Policy Implications from a Three-Country Study', paper presented at the 98th Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, 28th August – 1st September, Boston
This paper from the APSA conference reports the results of an on-going study on the effectiveness of adult civic education programmes in the Dominican Republic, Poland and South Africa. The impact of civic education was ascertained by comparing the responses of individuals who had undergone civic education training ('treatment group') to the responses of similar individuals who had not been trained ('control group'). A total of ten civic education programmes in all three countries were evaluated in terms of their ability to affect the participation, knowledge, and democratic orientation of participants. The paper presents the implications of the study's findings and its conclusions for the role and implementation of civic education programmes.
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Hansen, G., 2002, 'Approaches to Civic Education: Lessons Learned', Office of Democracy and Governance, United States Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C.
Beginning in 1996, the United States Agency for International Development’s Centre for Democracy and Governance initiated this major multi-part study designed to measure the impact of both adult and school-based civic education programmes on participants' democratic behaviour and attitudes in the Dominican Republic, Poland, and South Africa. Using both quantitative and qualitative methods, this study represents a pioneering effort, both as a research initiative and as a practical application in managing for results in the democracy sector. The results of the study show that civic education programmes appear to contribute to significantly greater rates of political participation among programme participants, especially at the local level.
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Useful websites

CIVICUS is a world alliance for citizen participation that aims to strengthen citizen action and civil society throughout the world.
BRIDGE the gender and development research and information service, has a web guide and several resources on gender and participation.
Pathways of Women’s Empowerment is a DFID funded research and communications programme which will link with academics, activists and practitioners to find out what works to enhance women’s empowerment.
International Knowledge Network of Women in Politics (iKNOW Politics) is an online workspace designed to serve the needs of elected officials, candidates, political party leaders and members, researchers, students and other practitioners interested in advancing women in politics.
The Society for Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA) is an International Centre for Learning and Promotion of Democratic Governance. They conduct participatory research and training on civil society, capacity building, voluntary and non profit sector, governance, rural and urban local bodies, citizenship, gender and related issues.
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