Political systems

Elections

Election support and monitoring has attracted much attention amongst donors in recent years. Some of the texts below are 'practical', in that they explain terminology and the details of different electoral systems, and some are 'analytical' as they contain guidance on how to best design and support elections from a developmental perspective.

Page contents:

Where is a good place to start?

Reilly, B., 2003, 'International Electoral Assistance: A Review of Donor Activities and Lessons Learned', Working Paper 17, Democratic Transition in Post-Conflict Societies Project, Netherlands Institute of International Relations, The Hague
What are the issues facing international actors when they engage in post-conflict electoral assistance? What is the impact of international assistance on democratic politics in post-conflict situations? This paper from the Netherlands Institute of International Relations (Clingendael) addresses the main aspects of elections and presents some of the recent lessons learned. The need for a sustainable approach is highlighted.
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Electoral operations

This term is defined as the way in which elections are organised and administrated. Transparency and accessibility are key issues in the design of electoral operations.

Department for International Development, 2003, 'Elections and the Electoral Process: A Guide to Assistance', DFID, London
A guide to assistance from DFID, this paper is intended to assist DFID and FCO staff in deciding whether and how to offer assistance in the electoral process. It examines issues surrounding the decision to give assistance, gives detailed guidance on assistance during and between elections and looks at the role of monitoring and observing.
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SADC Parliamentary Forum, 2001, 'Norms and Standards for Elections in the SADC Region', Adopted by the SADC Parliamentary Forum Plenary Assembly, Windhoek, Namibia, 25 March 2001
This report from the SADC Parliamentary Forum first exposes some of the problems that still pervade the political environment in that region. Based on the lessons learned and experiences gained in election observation in Namibia, Mozambique, Mauritius and Zimbabwe, recommendations are made to face such problems. Strengthening electoral institutions, reforming outdated legal frameworks and electoral practices, and entrenching the democratic process in the conduct of elections are all basic ingredients to foster transparency, to level the playing field and to ensure free and fair elections.
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Electoral systems

This term refers to an element of electoral design: the methodology used to translate votes cast into a distribution of seats or offices. How electoral systems are designed is important as it has a strong impact on the political representation of certain groups.

Reynolds, A., Reilly B. and Ellis, A. et al., 2005, 'Electoral System Design: The New International IDEA Handbook', International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, Stockholm
How should electoral systems be chosen, designed and implemented? What discussion process is necessary? This handbook by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance aims to help designers of constitutions and those involved in debate on political institutions in new and transitional democracies. It suggests criteria for deciding the best electoral system for any given context and describes the advantages and disadvantages of different systems and their possible consequences.
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Reilly, B., 2002, 'Electoral Systems for Divided Societies', Journal of Democracy, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 156-70
This article, in the Journal of Democracy, looks at the impact that ‘preferential’ electoral systems (that is those that enable voters to rank- order their preferences) have on divided societies, drawing on case studies from Northern Ireland, Estonia, Australia, Fiji and Papua New Guinea. Traditionally, political science literature has favoured a ‘consociational’ approach which encourages the formation of ethnic parties, replicating ethnic divisions in the legislature. However, this approach does not necessarily reduce conflict, and its application in developing countries is questionable. Preferential systems — Single Transferable Vote (STV) and Alternative Vote (AV) — encourage cooperation and accommodation of rival groups through reciprocal vote-pooling.
Full document: available via document delivery. Please see document summary.

Electoral costs

The International Foundation for Electoral Support (IFES) has recently completed their Cost of Registration and Elections (CORE) project with UNDP support. This project analysed and compared election related costs across 10 countries of varying size and democratic stability. The final CORE report is listed below.

Lopez-Pintor, R. and Fischer, J., 2005, 'Cost of Registration and Elections (CORE) Project', International Foundation for Electoral Support, Washington D.C.
How are election budgets established, tracked and funded? What cost management practices can Election Management Bodies (EMBs) adopt? This study from the Center for Transitional and Post-Conflict Governance is based on survey research from 34 countries and in-depth case studies from ten countries. It identifies cost variables and sources of revenue, and evaluates the election budgets and cost management practices of EMBs.
Full text: available online

Additional information resources

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA) has collected data on voter turnout by gender in a variety of different countries. They also have a wealth of material on electoral processes. 

The International Foundation for Election Systems (IFES) is a democracy and governance non-profit organisation that has provided technical assistance to over 100 countries.

The Administration and Cost of Elections (ACE) Project is a global information resource on electoral administration. It is jointly led by IFES, IDEA and the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA).

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