Political systems

Democracy

Democracy is a topic that has attracted much academic attention and has subsequently produced a large body of literature. Development theorists have put forward contradictory arguments regarding democracy and its impact on poverty reduction. This page is constructed around two key questions: ‘How can democracy be pro-poor?' and 'How can we build democracy in different development contexts?'

Page contents

• Where is a good place to start?
• Semi-democracies
• Building democracy
• Democracy and development
• Democracy and conflict
• What other resources are available on the GSDRC?
• Additional information resources

Where is a good place to start?

Carothers, T., 1997, 'Democracy Assistance: the Question of Strategy', Democratization, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 109 – 132
This article is based primarily on US experience, although the point is made that most western countries have similar experiences. It finds that democratisation rests on a conventional model of western liberal democracy and is generally devoted to technical institution building. Three positive and four negative consequences are identified, though it is noted that efforts are underway to address the faults.
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Grugel, J., 2002, 'Democratization and the State', chapter 4 in Democratization: a Critical Introduction, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke
This chapter from Democratization: A Critical Introduction examines the type of institutional reform that democratization should involve. It argues that reforms so far have stopped at the introduction of minimal democracy, and therefore failed to produce fully democratic states. The reasons for this failure include weak state capacity, authoritarian legacies and the imperative of economic reform.
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Semi-democracies

Sometimes, the formal institutions of democracy are in place in a country but they are just a façade, and in reality the state still operates on non-democratic principles. Often, states cannot be described as either full liberal democracies or outright dictatorships. The resources below examine the rise of this phenomenon in developing countries.

Carothers, T., 2002, 'The End of the Transition Paradigm', Journal of Democracy, vol. 13, no. 1
Are ‘transitional countries’ necessarily moving towards democracy? This paper published by the Journal of Democracy questions the transitional paradigm. The ‘transitional democracy’ model emerged in the US democracy-promotion community during the 1980s. In most cases, its core assumptions have not been confirmed by actual patterns of political change. The transitional paradigm is outdated and no longer useful in the analysis of democratisation.
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Olcott, M. and Ottaway, M., n.d. 'Challenge of Semi-Authoritarianism', Carnegie paper no. 7, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington D.C.
Since the end of the Cold War, there has been a rise in the number of semi-authoritarian regimes: regimes that contain elements of both democratic and authoritarian systems. This paper, by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, argues that although these regimes allow for a certain degree of political freedom and openness, they cannot be regarded as democratic. This is because they lack the essential characteristic of a democratic system, namely, the ability to transfer power to a new leadership. 
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Building democracy

All democratic states are different and have democratic institutions of differing strength, design and purpose. A state's adoption of multi-party elections is only a very small part of building a functioning democracy - ensuring the establishment of democratic norms, institutions and principles in every area of governance and society is a long-term multi-disciplinary project.

Luckham, R., Goetz, A. M. and Kaldor, M., 2003, 'Democratic Institutions and Democratic Politics' in Can Democracy be Designed? The Politics of Institutional Choice in Conflict-Torn Societies, eds. S. Bastian and R. Luckham,  Zed Books, London
Contemporary governance debates often assume the positive contribution of democracy to civil and political equality, poverty reduction, and conflict resolution. Yet, is the evidence for this conclusive? Are there democratic shortfalls, too? This paper delves into these questions about democracy, inequality and conflict. The paper makes a distinction between institutions and politics, seeking to demonstrate that the spread of democratic institutions does not guarantee the spread of democratic politics. The paper investigates ways in which democratic institutions can be designed to foster democratic politics that embody popular demands for participation, social justice and peace.
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Smith, B., 2003, 'Democratization in the Third World' in Understanding Third World Politics: Theories of Political Change and Development (Second Edition), Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke
What are the prerequisites of a stable democracy? This chapter in ‘Understanding Third World Politics: Theories of Political Change and Development’ shows that the process of democratisation is not smooth. The research concludes that it is important to recognise that democratisation cannot be separated from the development of the economy.
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Tilly, C., 2000, 'Processes and Mechanisms of Democratization', Sociological Theory, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 1-16
How is the process of democratisation best defined? What are the necessary conditions for successful democratisation? This study from Columbia University attempts to specify the various conditions and processes that promoted or blocked democratisation in different parts of Europe between 1650 and the present. It identifies possible mechanisms in democratisation and specifies likely conditions affecting their emergence.
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Democracy and development

The link between democracy and development is a controversial topic. The resources below tackle the following questions: ‘Is democracy good for economic growth?’, ‘Can it work in under-developed contexts?’ and ‘Is democracy inherently pro-poor?’

Leftwich, A., 2002, 'Debate: Democracy and Development. A Contradiction in the Politics of Economics', in New Political Economy, Vol. 7, No. 2, 2002
Western donor organisations insist on the democratisation of developing countries as a condition for aid. It is believed that democratisation fosters development. Yet, is there strong evidence that this is really true? This article from the journal 'New Political Economy' discusses the tension between democracy and development.
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Moore, M. and Putzel, J., 1999 'Thinking Strategically about Politics and Poverty', IDS Working Paper no. 101, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton
A working paper commissioned by the UK Department for International Development considers the need to assess the political context in which policy interventions are taken in the developing world. Aid donors should undertake political impact assessments before implementing programmes and recognise that they are themselves political actors within their working environment. An understanding of the political system and expert local knowledge must support country-level operations. There is a wide range of potential pro-poor political alliances but their creation often depends on the political circumstances in which they exist. There are many reasons why non-poor groups are willing and able to support pro-poor policies.
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Marquette, H., 2003, 'The Changing Orthodoxy on Democracy and Development', in Corruption, Politics and Development: The Role of the World Bank, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, pp. 40-54
What is the relationship between democracy and development? What are the problems of aid that is conditional upon political reform? This extract reviews the changing perspectives on the relationship between political systems and development since World War II and the evidence that supports them. It goes on to consider the problems of adopting political conditionality as a World Bank policy.
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Democracy and conflict

It is often stated that democracies do not go to war with each other. But does recent research support this claim? What effect does democracy have on conflict and what does this mean for development?

Stewart, F. and O'Sullivan, M., 1999, 'Democracy, Conflict and Development - Three Cases,' in The Political Economy of Comparative Development into the 21st Century, eds. G. Ranis, G. et al, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham
Western governments view the promotion of democracy as desirable both as an end in itself and because of the widespread belief that democracies do not wage war on one another, that they are less likely to repress their own citizens, and that democracy promotes development and growth. This chapter, in The Political Economy of Comparative Development into the 21st Century, asks whether democracies are invariably less likely to suffer internal strife, and whether such strife really hampers development. It examines the relationship between democracy, conflict and development, through three case studies: Kenya and Uganda (which have much in common) and Sri Lanka.
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What other resources are available on the GSDRC?

Users of this page may also be interested in the following pages that deal with related aspects of democracy:

• Political participation page within this guide to political systems
• Elections page within this guide to political systems
• Political parties page within this guide to political systems

Additional information resources

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace is a non-partisan, non-profit organisation which aims to advance cooperation between nations and promote active international engagement by the US.

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