Fragile states

Democracy and elections

Donors engaged in fragile states have often focused on the rapid establishment of democracy, presuming it to be a vital part of re-building the state. But how appropriate is it to pursue democracy-building policies in failing states? Is there a way of establishing democracy and holding elections that reduces fragility?

Page contents

Where is a good place to start?

Soderberg, M. and Ohlson, T., 2003, 'Democratisation and Armed Conflict', SIDA
What is the relationship between democratisation and armed conflict? What role can development assistance play in relation to this? This paper by Uppsala University seeks to challenge prevailing conceptions about the process of democratisation and to analyse how that process relates to state building, institution-building, civil society and the security sector. The focus is on the potential for political violence in the context of democratisation processes. It concludes that there is a need for a general reassessment among donors.
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Should we pursue democracy?

Often the necessary conditions for democracy are missing in weak states, for example internal stability, human rights, strong civil society, tolerance and the rule of law. Democratisation is not an easy process in fragile states and has great potential to destabilise and ignite conflict, particularly in countries with ethnic and religious divisions. The following articles argue that donors should act slowly and cautiously, concentrating on developing the political culture and principles for democracy rather than the specific structures.

Ottaway, M. and Lieven, A., 2002, 'Rebuilding Afghanistan: Fantasy versus Reality', CEIP Policy Brief 12, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
Can a Western reconstruction programme be successful in the context of an ethnically, tribally and religiously segmented society? What factors should be considered when designing strategies for intervention? This paper published by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace examines approaches to the reconstruction of Afghanistan and argues that the over ambitious programme of democratic reconstruction cannot work. A more modest and realistic programme is required concentrating on creating peace and restoring economic functions, rather than rebuilding the entire state.
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Stewart, F. and O'Sullivan, M. 1999, 'Democracy, Conflict and Development - Three Cases,' in The Political Economy of Comparative Development into the 21st Century, Ranis, G. et al (eds.), Edward Elgar, Cheltenham
Western governments view the promotion of democracy as desirable both as an end in itself and because of the widespread belief that democracies do not wage war on one another, that they are less likely to repress their own citizens, and that democracy promotes development and growth. Six of the ten worst performers in both the Human Development Index and by GNP per capita are countries which were recently, or are still, at war with themselves.
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Ottaway, M. and Carothers, T., 2003, 'The Right Road to Sovereignty in Iraq', CEIP Policy Brief, no.27, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington D.C.
The US government pressed for an Iraqi constitution to be written and approved by spring 2004, and for elections to follow as soon as possible. But what impact could such a hurried timetable have on prospects for democracy? This policy brief, published by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, suggests that early elections could produce unstable results and favour radical groups.
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Electoral design

Elections in conflict or fragile environments need to be well designed to ensure minimum potential for conflict. The papers below highlight the need to consider timing, electoral system design, electoral management and oversight, cost-effective voter-registration, civic education and the development of broad-based political parties.

Reilly, B., 2003, 'International Electoral Assistance: A Review of Donor Activities and Lessons Learned', Working Paper 17, Democratic Transition in Post-Conflict Societies project
What are the issues facing international actors when they engage in post-conflict electoral assistance? What is the impact of international assistance on democratic politics in post-conflict situations? This paper from the Netherlands Institute of International Relations (Clingendael) addresses the main aspects of elections and presents some of the recent lessons learned. The need for a sustainable approach is highlighted.
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Reilly, B. 2002, 'Electoral Systems for Divided Societies', Journal of Democracy, vol. 21, no. 2
Electoral systems can reduce conflict in countries divided by race, ethnicity and language. They can also play an important role in helping new or transitional democracies achieve stability. This article, in the Journal of Democracy, looks at the impact that ‘preferential’ electoral systems (that is those that enable voters to rank- order their preferences) have on divided societies, drawing on case studies from Northern Ireland, Estonia, Australia, Fiji and Papua New Guinea.
Full text available via document delivery. Please see document summary.

What other resources are available on the GSDRC?

For more general resources on this topic, please see the GSDRC's topic guide to political systems which has specific pages on democracy and elections.

Use the site search at the top of this page  if you wish to look for wider resources on fragile states and democracy.

Additional information resources

The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace has a 'Democracy and Rule of Law' Programme with several resources on fragile states. 

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