Fragile states

Delivering security, justice, health, education and water in fragile contexts

This page introduces some of the challenges, dilemmas and lessons learned in supporting the delivery of basic services in fragile contexts.

Failure to deliver basic services including security, health, education and justice is understood as both a cause and characteristic of fragility; states that fail to meet a society’s basic needs and expectations are seen to inherently lack legitimacy and resilience, and fragile situations in turn give rise to the deterioration and fragmentation of services. The impacts of fragility on service delivery are widely documented, and include; inequitable coverage and access, the proliferation of non-state service providers (including international NGOs), and the breakdown of long-route accountability.

The impetus for donors in supporting the delivery of services in fragile states is not only meeting basic human needs, but supporting the state-building imperative, specifically, the development of reciprocal state-society relations, state legitimacy, and meaningful accountability relationships. In this sense, donors are increasingly thinking in terms of how and to what extent the delivery of services can address the root causes of fragility. But many caution that using services to address inequity and social exclusion are highly political undertakings.

Page contents

Service delivery dilemmas and trade-offs
Delivering security and justice in fragile contexts
Delivering health in fragile contexts
Delivering education in fragile contexts
Delivering water and sanitation in fragile contexts

Service delivery dilemmas and trade-offs

Ensuring the quality, sustainability and accessibility of basic services in fragile contexts, particularly for the poor, presents a series of dilemmas and challenges for donors. These include the need to balance short-term delivery mechanisms with the development of long-term (state) capacity and institutions (the so-called ‘twin-track’ dilemma in that the two tracks imply different activities) and the potential for donor involvement to distort accountability relationships.

In supporting service delivery in fragile states, many call for donors to better understand access constraints, target marginalised groups, build on local residual capacity, and support local community-based approaches, community voice and civil society oversight.

OECD-DAC, 2008, ‘Service Delivery in Fragile Situations: Key Concepts, Findings and Lessons’, OECD-DAC, Paris
How can service delivery be strengthened in the context of a fragile state? This report from the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development reviews evidence on the impact of state fragility on service delivery. Donors should tailor interventions to context, maintain a long-term focus on governance and state-building and manage transition and hand-back sensitively. Efforts at national government level need to be balanced with programmes linked to local authorities and communities.
Access full text: available online

Pavenello, S., and Darcy, J., 2008, ‘Improving the Provision of Basic Services for the Poor in Fragile Environments: International Literature Review Synthesis Paper’, Report prepares for AusAID by the Overseas Development Institute, London
What has been the international community’s experience with pro-poor service provision in fragile states? This report from ODI examines the existing literature and synthesises information from three new sectoral reports to create a comprehensive picture of donor engagement in service provision in fragile contexts. While service provision in these environments is an increasingly prominent feature of donor interventions, significant challenges remain in balancing short-term and long-term objectives and tailoring engagement to the particular circumstances of each context.
Access full text: available online

Commins, S., 2005, ‘Service Delivery in LICUS Contexts: Balancing Short-term Provision with Longer-term Institutional Goals’, Discussion Note, World Bank, Washington
How can international development organisations balance short-term provision of services with longer-term institutional goals? This informal discussion note from the World Bank analyses service delivery in Low Income Countries Under Stress (LICUS). It looks at how to deliver services quickly to vulnerable groups, while engaging in the long-term task of rebuilding public institutions. There must be a thorough analysis of the specific country context and the creation of linkages between public institutions and aspects of service delivery from the start.
Access full text: available online

Berry, C., Forder, A., Sultan, S. and Moreno-Torres, M., 2004, 'Approaches to Improving the Delivery of Social Services in Difficult Environments', Poverty Reduction in Difficult Environments Team, Working paper 3, UK Department for International Development, London
What are the challenges faced by external actors in supporting service delivery in difficult environments (SDDE)? This working paper from the UK Department of International Development asks what type of approaches, and what conditions, improve human development outcomes and build pro-poor government-led systems in fragile states. It argues that the international community should emphasise service delivery as a key entry point to further development in difficult environments.
Access full text: available online

Delivering security and justice in fragile contexts

Justice, security, and the rule of law are widely seen as essential prerequisites for economic and social development. Security matters to the poor and other vulnerable groups, especially women and children, because bad policing, weak justice and penal systems and corrupt militaries mean that they suffer disproportionately from crime, insecurity and fear.

Ball, N., Scheye, E. and Van de Goor, L., 2008, 'From Project to Program: Effective Programming for Security and Justice', Netherlands Institute of International Relations (Clingendael), The Hague
Security and justice activities in fragile states involve considerable risk. In such environments, what is the way forward for reform? This report, from the Netherlands Institute for International Relations (Clingendael), looks at security system reform (SSR) in fragile ‘post-conflict’ and fragile ‘rebuilding’ states. It suggests that donors should provide support in three linked stages, which would enable immediate needs to be met while longer-term programming is developed. An iterative approach would strengthen the relationship between state and non-state service providers and service users.
Access full text: available online

OECD, 2007, 'OECD DAC Handbook on Security Sector Reform: Supporting Security and Justice', OECD, Paris
How can the gap between policy and practice on Security Sector Reform (SSR) be closed? This handbook from the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD-DAC) provides guidance on how to operationalise its guidelines on SSR. Addressing the challenges faced by all citizens to achieve personal safety, security and access to justice should be the key determining factor in evaluating the success or otherwise of donor support programmes.
Access full text: available online

Scheye, E., and McLean, A., 2006, 'Enhancing the Delivery of Justice and Security in Fragile States', OECD-DAC Network on Conflict, Peace and Development Co-operation (CPDC), Paris
How should international actors contribute to the support of justice and security in fragile states? This paper from the OECD-DAC Network on Conflict, Peace and Development Co-operation analyses the providers, processes and objectives of fragile states’ justice and security services, and reviews lessons learnt by donors in this area. It argues that international actors should take a multi-layered, context-specific approach to fragile states, developing the capacity of the state, but also enabling it to engage with non-state justice and security providers.
Access full text: available online

Further resources on delivering justice in conflict-affected and fragile states can be found in the GSDRC justice guide.

Further resources on delivering security sector reform in conflict-affected fragile states are available via the Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform.

Delivering health in fragile contexts

Fragile environments are often characterised by weak and disrupted health systems. Health system strengthening (HSS) initiatives in fragile states typically aim not only to support the achievement of the health MDGs and national health targets but also to ensure that the delivery of national health services takes place in an equitable, accountable and sustainable manner despite the very difficult, often conflict-affected, contexts. Health systems strengthening is often co-ordinated through a Basic Package of Health Services, as recently demonstrated in Afghanistan.

Health and Fragile States Network, 2009, ‘Health Systems Strengthening in Fragile Contexts: A Report on Good Practices & New Approaches’, Report funded by DFID
What are the best approaches to strengthening health systems in fragile states? This report by the Health and Fragile States Network surveys current health strategies in an attempt to test the feasibility of health system strengthening in fragile contexts and to shed light on emerging ‘good practices’ and challenges for health issues in these environments. Its findings suggest that while there is great diversity in the approaches taken to strengthen health systems, successful interventions share common elements of community integration, partnership, and long time horizons.
Access full text: available online

Oswald, S., and Clewett, J., 2007, ‘Delivering Health Services in Fragile States and Difficult Environments: 13 Key Principles’, Health Unlimited, London
What is needed to extend appropriate, effective healthcare to the under-served in fragile states and difficult environments? This paper, published by Health Unlimited, argues that flexibility, understanding of a given context, the establishment of trust, and long-term commitment are key to improving health outcomes. Based on decades of experience of delivering healthcare to marginalised groups, this paper outlines 13 key principles aimed at policy makers and implementers. Case studies are drawn from six countries with large under-served populations (Burma/Myanmar, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Peru and Somaliland), but the results are applicable to all communities.
Access full text: available online

K Ranson et al, 2007, ‘Promoting Health Equity in Conflict-affected Fragile States’, prepared for the Health Systems Knowledge Network, Commission on Social Determinants and Health, World Health Organization, Geneva
What are the main factors that threaten health equity and health care equity in conflict-affected fragile states? What strategies can reduce the impact of these factors? This paper prepared for the World Health Organisation examines the impact of conflict and state fragility on health equity. It identifies the key drivers of health inequity in conflict-affected states, as well as some useful strategies for addressing equity in conflict and post-conflict settings.
Access full text: available online

Further resources are available at:

DFID Health Resource Centre
Health Systems 20/20: Health Systems 20/20 is engaging in work with USAID missions and other partners to support reconstruction and development in post conflict or otherwise fragile states.
Health and Fragile States Network
HLSP Institute: Health systems in fragile states
Eldis: Health and fragile states dossier

Delivering education in fragile contexts

It is estimated that fragile states account for over half of all children out of school in the world (International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP), 2009). In fragile contexts, education provides opportunities to increase social and economic stability and is vital for achieving economic growth and recovery, reducing poverty, and improving health, living conditions and livelihoods. But many agencies argue education is not being prioritised in humanitarian and development aid, and that donors are not living up to the promise of Education for All.

IIEP, 2009, 'Rebuilding Resilience: The Education Challenge', IIEP Newsletter, Volume 1 Jan-April, International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP), Brussels
What are the best strategies for supporting education programmes in fragile states? This newsletter from the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) reviews recent educational reform projects in fragile situations. Rebuilding state resilience is the most effective means of improving education outcomes. Donors should tailor their interventions to specific contexts and commit to engaging longer and more predictably with developing country governments to achieve greater stability and educational performance.
Access full text: available online

Save the Children, 2009, ‘Last in Line, Last in School: How Donors are Failing Children in Conflict-affected Fragile states, Save the Children, London
What are the recent trends in donor support for education for children living in conflict-affected fragile states (CAFS) and those caught up in emergencies? This third annual Last in Line, Last in School report from Save the Children finds that although donors have increased their focus on meeting the education needs of children in these countries and situations, there is still a long way to go. If trends continue, CAFS will not receive the levels of basic education aid needed to achieve the education Millennium Development Goal of universal primary education (UPE) until 2034.
Access full text: available online

Rose, P. and Greeley, M., 2006, 'Education in Fragile States: Capturing Lessons and Identifying Good Practice', prepared for the DAC Fragile States Group Service Delivery Workstream Sub-Team for Education Services, Centre for International Education, University of Sussex, Brighton
This paper, prepared for the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) Fragile States Group looks at how development assistance in fragile states can enhance access to education for the poor and vulnerable, improve governance and increase aid effectiveness. It recommends strengthening the evidence base, principles, monitoring and evaluation, and co-ordination of work in this area.
Access full text: available online

Berry, C., 2009, 'A Framework for Assessing the Effectiveness of the Delivery of Education Aid in Fragile States', Journal of Education for International Development, Volume 4, Number 1, pp.1-12
How can the effectiveness of education aid in fragile states be assessed and improved? This paper from the Journal of Education for International Development presents an assessment framework based on OECD principles of co-ordination, state-building and 'do no harm'. The framework is applied to four approaches to education aid (sector-wide approaches, trust funds, social funds, and UN-led approaches). No single approach will provide all the answers. Planning structures that include a wide range of stakeholders are particularly important in fragile state contexts.
Access full text: available online

Miller-Grandvaux, Y., 2009, ‘Education and Fragility: A New Framework’, Journal of Education for International Development, 4:1
The Education and Fragility Framework positions education at the center of four key areas of influence related to economic, governance, security and social domains. Education is viewed within the context of specific root causes of fragility or conflict such as organised violence, corruption, exclusion and elitism, transitional dynamics, insufficient capacity and public disengagement. Each of these issues can be addressed through education. In all cases, the premise is that if education can contribute to a given driver of fragility, it can also contribute to finding its remedy and thus to promoting stability.
Access full text: available online

Further resources are available at:

Delivering water and sanitation in fragile contexts

Fragile states are often unable to provide water services to the majority of their people, especially the poor. Many argue the water sector is a good entry point for state-building activities in fragile states, since it is non-ideological and generally in high demand. Much of the literature encourages donors to balance short-term (humanitarian) with medium to long-term support, and to develop the capacity of the state to undertake a supervisory and regulatory role regarding small, non-state providers of water and sanitation services.

Plummer, J., and Slaymaker, T., 2007, ‘Rethinking Governance in Water Services, Annex A: Key Issues: A Thinkpiece for DFID Policy Division’, DFID, London
Access full text: available online

Welle, K., 2008, ‘Improving the Provision of Basic Services for the Poor in Fragile Environments: Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene’, International Literature Review’, Overseas Development Institute, London
How can donors and partner governments best support the provision of water, sanitation and hygiene in fragile environments? This literature review is one of three sectoral reports from the Overseas Development Institute on service delivery in fragile states. It confirms that water supply service delivery in fragile states remains limited. Documentation on sanitation and hygiene issues in these environments is virtually non-existent. The water sector is a good entry point for state-building, but approaches depend on the type and context of state fragility.
Access full text: available online