Fragile states

Addressing exclusion and strengthening citizen engagement

Page contents

• Addressing exclusion
• Gender and state-building
• Strengthening citizen engagement
• Decentralisation in fragile states
• State-building case studies and narratives
• Useful websites

Addressing exclusion

Social exclusion is a key cause and characteristic of state fragility. Supporting opportunities for enhancing excluded groups rights and their participation in governance is therefore viewed as a critical aspect of state-building by donors. Some view a rights-based approach to programming as crucial in the achievement of long term and sustainable empowerment of marginalised groups.

Evans D.G., 2008, 'Human Rights and State Fragility: Conceptual Foundations and Strategic Directions for State-Building', Report prepared for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Denmark 
How can a human rights-based approach support state building in fragile states? This paper, prepared for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Denmark, presents guidance for international actors. Given the relationship between conflict and poverty, neither factor on its own can guide responses to state fragility. A human rights-based approach to state building involves analysing and addressing issues of social, economic and political exclusion.
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Stewart, F., Brown, G., and Langer, A., 2007, 'Policies towards Horizontal Inequalities', CRISE Working Paper, no. 42, Queen Elizabeth House, Oxford University, Oxford
Severe horizontal inequalities (HIs), or inequalities among groups, are undesirable in themselves and can lead to violent conflict. So, what can be done to reduce them? This paper from the Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity (CRISE) reviews a range of policies which could contribute to reducing HIs in the political, socio-economic and cultural status dimensions. Considerations of HIs are frequently ignored in policy-making, and need to become an important part of policy discussions in multicultural societies.
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DIIS, 2008, ‘Youth Employment in Fragile States’, DIIS Policy Brief, Danish Institute for International Studies, Copenhagen
Directing the energy of youth towards reconstruction is a challenge and requires rapid interventions in the areas of education, family life and health, economic empowerment and civic participation.
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For further reading, see also: 'Tackling social exclusion' in the GSDRC social exclusion guide; 'Protecting minority rights' in the GSDRC conflict guide; and 'State fragility and human rights' in the GSDRC human rights guide.

Gender and state-building

Gender roles and relations can determine opportunities and obstacles to state-building. Many argue early attention needs to be given to gender equality and to increasing women’s voice in political, social, and economic development in fragile and post-conflict settings. State reconstruction can provide opportunities to shape new social, economic, and political dynamics that can break existing gender stereotypes. For example, recent research has shown how the redrawing of the boundaries of authority between the formal state and customary governance systems can provide new citizenship opportunities for women. Not focusing on gender early on can entrench systems that discriminate against women which are much harder to challenge later.

At the operational level, however, gender is often not seen as a high priority by donors in the early states of post-conflict state-building, and may be ignored in the design of interventions.  It is important to understand the linkages between gender and fragility, and the implications of failing to take gender into account (including the potential to inadvertently reinforce discrimination).          

Castillejo, C., 2008, ‘Strengthening Women's Citizenship in the Context of State Building: The Experience of Sierra Leone’, Fundación para las Relaciones Internacionales y el Diálogo Exterior (FRIDE), Madrid
How can women’s citizenship in developing countries be strengthened? In many African countries women have little contact with the formal state and their lives are governed by customary governance systems that seriously limit their rights and opportunities for political participation. This is particularly true for women in fragile states, where the formal state is weak and inaccessible. Based on field research in Sierra Leone, this Working Paper examines how processes of post-conflict state-building have redrawn the boundaries of authority between the formal state and customary governance systems, and thereby provided new citizenship opportunities for women. The paper explores the changes that are taking place in women’s rights, women’s political participation and women’s mobilisation in Sierra Leone, in the context of state-building. It also makes recommendations for how donors can support the strengthening of women’s citizenship within their support for state-building in Africa.
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Larson, A., 2008, ‘A Mandate to Mainstream: Promoting Gender Equality in Afghanistan’, Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, Kabul
How well is gender equality being promoted in Afghanistan? This study, from the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, argues that gender mainstreaming is not being substantively implemented in the Administration, although it is the government’s principal strategy for promoting gender equality. Mainstreaming is a valuable tool and could be more effectively executed. It is the responsibility of the Government of Afghanistan (GoA), and of its leaders in particular, to ensure that its written commitment to promote gender equality in the GoA Gender Mainstreaming Policy is supported by its activities and practices.
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Strengthening citizen engagement

Many caution that any reconstruction process must allow for active citizen participation, particularly from periphery populations, in order to enhance its legitimacy. Donors need to therefore balance the top-down focus on institution-building with the strengthening of bottom-up access to institutions and accountability. Civic participation is also seen to strengthen state legitimacy. Citizen-centred or community-based approaches (CBA) are increasingly advocated as ways to develop local governance capacity and social capital.

Von Kaltenborn-Stachau, H., 2008, ‘Fostering Positive Citizen-State Relations in Support of State-building’, Part I in ‘The missing link: connecting citizen and state in post-conflict environments’, CommGAP, World Bank, Washington
How can the international community help to rebuild state-society relations in post-conflict situations? This study from the World Bank argues that current donor approaches to state-building are too narrowly focused and too fragmented to fully address the “invisible” yet critical processes of state-society relations. It recommends the adoption of a governance framework based on the concept of the public sphere in order to foster positive collaboration and engagement within post-conflict societies.
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Uvin. P., 2006. 'Fostering Citizen Collective Action in Post-Conflict Societies', in What Really Works in Preventing and Rebuilding Failed States?, Occasional Paper Series, Woodrow Wilson International Center, Washington, DC
How do NGOs contribute to civil society development in post-conflict environments? What role should the donor community play? This paper from the Woodrow Wilson Centre describes the challenges involved in civil society development in post-conflict Rwanda and Burundi. It concludes that in order to be successful, the donor community must find more effective and constructive means of supporting citizen opportunities for local learning and bargaining within the framework of the law. Promoting a culture of citizenship is crucial to effective civil society promotion.
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Eyben, R. and Ladbury, S., 2006, 'Building Effective States: Taking a Citizen's Perspective', Development Research Centre, Citizenship, Participation and Accountability, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton
How can a citizen-centred approach to development build effective states by improving relations between state and society? This paper from the Development Research Centre on Citizenship, Participation and Accountability, gives an overview of current debates and analyses citizens’ own views on these issues. It argues that a state’s legitimacy is strengthened by civic participation, which often grows up around local issues, and can be empowered through donor support.
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The National Solidarity Programme (NSP) in Afghanistan is a high-profile example of a citizen-led reconstruction effort which aimed to empower communities, improve community relations, and increase public faith in the system of government. However, other research warns about the challenges of making these structures sustainable, coherent and effective and in developing their relations with non-state actors and customary governance systems.

Ghani, A., and Lockhart, C., 2008, ‘National Programs: The Challenge of Implementation’, Chapter 9 in Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Rebuilding a Fractured World, Oxford University Press, Oxford
How do national programmes aid the state-building process? This chapter from the book 'Fixing Failed States' assesses the success of national programmes in Europe, the United States and Afghanistan. Currently, state-building strategies falter because they fail to link intentions to realistic and innovative delivery mechanisms. The real work lies in implementation, and national programmes can provide the implementation vehicles that align vision, rules, resources and participants to achieve a common goal.
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Nixon, H., 2007, ‘The Changing Face of Local Government?: Community Development Councils in Afghanistan’, Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, Kabul
What role do Community Development Councils (CDCs) play at the community level in Afghanistan? This working paper from the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit presents findings from research on subnational governance in Afghanistan. It finds that CDCs have made a significant contribution to the welfare and representation of community members. It is now important to consider the future of CDCs, their role in achieving improved development outcomes and their position in the local governance system.
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Decentralisation in fragile states

There is considerable disagreement about whether and how decentralisation should be pursued in fragile environments. Decentralisation is often supported on the basis that it can positively impact on centre-periphery relations and bring government closer to the people. But many studies have found that informal political institutions can subvert the decentralisation process in fragile states, and some caution that the relationship between state resilience and decentralisation is not yet well understood. A long-standing concern in the state-building literature has been the need to balance the development of strong central institutions with the need for the state to have a local presence, but without local agencies becoming autonomous from the state.

Brinkerhoff, D., 2008, ‘Good Enough Governance in Fragile States: The Role of Center-Periphery Relations and Local Government’, Paper presented at the 4th International Specialised Conference on “International Aid and Public Administration”, International Institute of Administrative Sciences, Ankara, Turkey, June 23-27
How can fragile and post-conflict states stabilise themselves and transition toward socio-economic recovery? This paper, presented at the IIAS conference, argues that developing countries and donors should eschew ambitious idealised visions of good governance in favour of pragmatic approaches aimed at achieving "good enough governance". Drawing from evidence from stabilisation efforts in Iraq, it concludes that implementing this new strategy requires looking beyond the centre to the critical role of sub-national levels of government in post-conflict reconstruction.
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GSDRC, 2008, ‘Decentralisation and Assistance to Sub-national Governments in Fragile Environments’, Helpdesk Research Report, Governance and Social Development Resource Centre, Birmingham
Many argue that strengthening sub-national governance in fragile situations is vital, particularly for delivering basic services where the state is weak or absent, for addressing ethnic/regional inequalities, and for conflict management. The importance of center-periphery relations in terms of statebuilding, particularly in restoring state legitimacy, is also noted. Yet others are skeptical as to whether there is any evidence that decentralisation can produce pro-poor outcomes in fragile settings. Furthermore, there is significant concern that decentralisation in certain contexts can be potentially damaging; case studies highlight the risk that decentralisation can be subverted by politics, therefore reinforcing non-democratic and non-participatory political systems, and increasing the potential of a return to conflict or fragility.
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Engberg-Pedersen, L., 2008, ‘Local Governance in Fragile States’, DIIS Policy Brief, Danish Institute of International Studies, Copenhagen
This policy brief argues that early support to local governance in fragile states is vital for enabling socio-economic development in the countryside, but comprehensive political, fiscal and administrative decentralisation reforms are rarely the way forward. In situations where non-state actors fill the gaps left by absence of government, comprehensive decentralisation risks reproducing state fragility. Ignoring informal non-state authorities can considerably undermine efforts to reform local governance in fragile states. Overall, donors should not be overly ambitious and should adopt a properly sequenced and integrated approach.
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Jackson, P., 2005, 'Chiefs, Money and Politicians: Rebuilding Local Government in Post-War Sierra Leone', Public Administration and Development, vol. 25, no 1., pp. 49-58
What are the prospects for decentralisation in post-war Sierra Leone? This paper from the University of Birmingham's International Development Department analyses the interaction between the different elements of local government, finance, and the diamond trade in Sierra Leone and offers guidance for post-conflict reconstruction at a local level. It argues that the reconstitution of the politico-economic networks surrounding diamond extraction outside of local government may lead to the alienation of the same groups that led the rebellion over the last few years.
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State-building case studies and narratives

Many argue the historical trajectory of state-building in any given context, and the potential for path dependence, is vital for external actors to understand. The case studies below demonstrate how forms of the state can change over time in response to internal and external factors. Some of the studies seek to account for state resilience in a comparative perspective.

Commins, S., Rocha Menocal, A., and Othieno, T., 2009, ‘States in Development: Testing the State-building Framework’, Overseas Development Institute (ODI), London
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Beswick, D., 2009, ‘The Challenge of Warlordism to Post-Conflict State-Building: The Case of Laurent Nkunda in Eastern Congo’, The Round Table, Volume 98, Issue 402, pp. 333 - 346
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Gutierrez-Sanin, F. et al., 2009, ‘Politics and Security in Three Colombian Cities’, Crisis States Research Centre, London School of Economics (LSE), London
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Moxham, B., 2008, ‘State-Making and the Post-Conflict City: Integration in Dili, Disintegration in Timor-Leste’, Crisis States Research Centre, London School of Economics (LSE), London
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Sumich, J. and Honwana, J., 2007, 'Strong Party, Weak State? Frelimo and State Survival Through the Mozambican Civil War: An Analytical Narrative on State-Making', Working Paper 23, Crisis States Research Centre, London School of Economics (LSE), London
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Hesselbein, G., 2007, 'The Rise and Decline of the Congolese State: An analytical narrative on state-making', Crisis States Research Centre, London School of Economics (LSE), London
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Chopra, J., 2002, 'Building State Failure in East Timor', Development and Change, vol. 33, no. 5
International state-building interventions frequently invite controversy and the United Nations Transitional Authority in East Timor (UNTAET) was no exception. Can international intervention succeed where local participation is excluded? Should a 'peace-maintenance' mandate involve bestowing sovereignty on the United Nations? This paper, compiled for Development and Change, reviews the governorship style of intervention exercised by the UN in East Timor, highlights the problems associated with such a total form of international administration and recommends a 'participatory intervention' doctrine for future enterprises.
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Useful websites

• OECD DAC: Peace-building, state-building and security 
• International Peace Institute: Research partnership on post-war state-building  
• Institute for State Effectiveness 
• Princeton University is running a research partnership on “Institutions for Fragile States”, in response to demand for problem-focused knowledge and practical “lessons” on the organisational designs, recruitment procedures, and management practices that yield accountable and capable government in volatile political settings.

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