Empowerment and accountability

Empowerment and accountability in fragile environments

The failings in state authority, legitimacy and capacity, weak social and human capital and high levels of inequality and exclusion that often characterise fragile contexts also present opportunities and challenges for empowerment processes. In fact, problematic citizen-state relations are considered to be both a cause and consequence of violent conflict. Societies in fragile states are often polarised along ethnic, religious or class lines groups, usually as a result of conflict. These societies can become dislocated from – and ambivalent towards – the state. So, addressing a lack of citizen engagement and participation is being increasingly viewed as a key strategy for rebuilding fragile and conflict-affected societies.

Eyben, R. and Ladbury, S., 2006, 'Building Effective States: Taking a Citizen's Perspective', Development Research Centre, Citizenship, Participation and Accountability, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton
How can a citizen-centred approach to development build effective states by improving relations between state and society? This paper gives an overview of current debates and analyses citizens’ own views on these issues. It argues that a state’s legitimacy is strengthened by civic participation, which often grows up around local issues, and can be empowered through donor support.
Access full text: available online

Current statebuilding practice places great emphasis on restoring public sector capacity and service delivery, with additional resources set aside for bolstering civil society and media organisations. Little attention, however, is paid to the residual societal and perceptual consequences of conflict, such as lack of civic trust, societal fragmentation, and exclusion. These can serve to limit people’s perception of their political community, and their willingness to engage in the public sphere. It is argued therefore that in order to build effective state-society interactions in fragile and conflict-affected states, attention must be given to supporting the capacity of non-violent civil society organisations. These can provide a safe space for citizens and civil society groups to participate in dialogue and debate with each other, and with the state. The Citizenship DRC finds that existing associations are important for providing a building block for citizen participation in fragile contexts.

Kaltenborn-Stachau, 2008, ‘The Missing Link: Fostering Positive Citizen-State Relations in Post-Conflict Environments’, CommGAP, World Bank, Washington DC
Why does the public sphere warrant greater attention in post-conflict assistance? How can this be achieved? Citing examples from Timor-Leste, Liberia and Burundi, this chapter argues that effectively addressing the 'invisible' consequences of conflict requires civil society, the media and the state to connect and engage constructively. The analytical framework that best captures these connective processes is that of the public sphere – a platform for national dialogue.
Access full text: available online

Mclean Hilker, L., 2010, ‘Broadening Spaces for Citizens in Violent Contexts’, Citizenship DRC Policy Briefing, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton
How can people be directly involved in finding solutions for their security and livelihood needs? Research suggests that, although violence deters citizens from taking action, external actors in violent contexts can help to facilitate citizen action that is non-violent and socially legitimate. To do this, donors need a locally nuanced understanding of the complex relationship between violent and non-violent actors, and between forms of everyday and political violence. Recommended actions include undertaking detailed analysis of local power dynamics, actors and relationships, and building on existing sources of resilience, 'safe spaces' and structures for change.
Access full text: available online

Pearce, J., 2007, ‘Violence, Power and Participation: Building Citizenship in Contexts of Chronic Violence’, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton
Can civil society organisations play a role in building citizenship and confronting violent actors and acts of violence? This paper argues that they can, and explores civil society participation in Colombia and Guatemala. Building citizenship amidst chronic violence requires simultaneous attention to citizenship and to violence. It is also important to clarify the relationship between power and violence.
Access full text: available online

There is also evidence that the building of inclusive coalitions by governments which capitalize on the capacity of the traditional institutions, NGOs, and the private sector have helped to restore the confidence of stakeholders and citizens in collective capacities for change. This has been a crucial first step in moving away from the brink of violence.

World Bank, 2011, 'Restoring Confidence: Moving Away from the Brink', in World Development Report 2011: Conflict, Security and Development, World Bank, Washington DC
This report provides an insight into the World Bank’s policy in fragile and conflict-affected states. It emphasises fostering ‘collaborative, inclusive-enough coalitions’. It explains that ‘unlike elite pacts, these coalitions involve broader segments of society—local governments, business, labour, civil society movements, in some cases opposition parties’ (p.xvii). These kinds of coalitions work at a broad level, ‘by building national support for change and bringing in the relevant stakeholders, through collaboration between the government and other sectors of society’ and at the local level, ‘by promoting outreach to community leaders to identify priorities and deliver programmes’ (p.13). Coalitions do not need to be ‘all inclusive’.
Access full text: available online

Ongoing fragility and conflict can result in high levels of mistrust - both between communities and between citizens and the state. In fragile states, social empowerment includes overcoming feelings of isolation and powerlessness that often result from ongoing conflict and violence and bringing about changes in how people see themselves and others. Community-level accountability mechanisms are thought to be effective in empowering citizens who had previously lacked voice, as well as in promoting better service delivery. Community-driven development projects have also been adopted as a mechanism that can unite diverse groups within communities, but may also link communities to the state through decentralisation, thus strengthening social cohesion.

Galtung, F., and Tisné, M., 2009, ‘A New Approach to Post-Conflict Reconstruction’, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 20, Issue 4, pp. 93-107
How can post-war reconstruction support democratisation and prevent the early entrenchment of corruption? This study examines democracy assistance in eight countries recovering from war. It argues that citizens need to be involved in the allocation of the public resources that affect their lives. Community-driven accountability can stem corruption and re-engage people in the democratic process. Such measures can begin in the earliest post-war stages, building on local skills and resources.
Access full text: available online

UNDESA, 2010, 'Promoting Citizen-Centric Public Service Delivery in Post-Conflict Situations', in Reconstructing Public Administration after Conflict: Challenges, Practices and Lessons Learned - World Public Sector Report 2010', United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA), New York, pp.105-122
What challenges and strategies are involved in rebuilding public service delivery after conflict? This chapter considers the benefits of a multi-stakeholder approach and the potential of information and communication technologies. Effective delivery of public services contributes to peace and stability, which in turn facilitates economic development. Post-conflict situations offer opportunities as well as challenges in public administration.
Access full text: available online

Haider, H., 2009, 'Community-based Approaches to Peacebuilding in Conflict-affected and Fragile Contexts', GSDRC Issues Paper, Governance and Social Development Resource Centre (GSDRC), Birmingham UK
The ‘community’ has often been resilient in conflict-affected and fragile contexts, providing survival and coping mechanisms for violence, insecurity and fragility. Growing attention has thus been paid to the adoption of community-based approaches to help address the extensive needs in these contexts. This paper from the GSDRC explores the principal aims of community-based approaches and key challenges and considerations in designing and implementing such approaches, particularly in environments of conflict and fragility.
Access full text: available online

Earle, L. 2011, ‘Literature Review on the Dynamics of Social Movements in Fragile and Conflict-Affected States’, Issues Paper, GSDRC
This literature review assesses the available academic and policy-oriented literature on social movements in fragile and conflict-affected contexts. It examines who becomes involved in collective action and why, the barriers to mobilisation and, where social movements do emerge, how these are able to sustain mobilisation and broaden their membership base to reflect the interests of the wider community. Evidence from this review suggests the importance of considering the interplay of movement activity and state stability, and of taking into account existing state-society relationships. Donors could focus on creating a supportive environment for social movements.
Access full text: available online

Additional resources

For more information on state-society relations and citizenship in situations of conflict and fragility, please see the GSDRC Topic Guide supplement on State-Society Relations and Citizenship in Situations of Conflict and Fragility.