Conflict
The reconstruction of states affected by conflict (part 1)
Reconstruction is a contested term. It is in widespread use, but it can involve problematic assumptions. For example, it can imply the conflict is over once peace agreements have been reached, whereas the sources of conflict remain. 'Post-conflict' countries are particularly likely to experience a renewal of violent conflict, so conflict prevention is an essential part of governance reconstruction interventions.
Some reconstruction efforts occur in states experiencing protracted violent crises. It may not be desirable to reconstruct institutions that existed before the onset of violent conflict, as the institutions might never have existed in the first place, or might have been part of the causes of conflict. Post-conflict governance involves difficult challenges. They include destroyed infrastructure, weak institutional capacity, and financial constraints. At the same time, there are huge needs for governance functions such as the rule of law and service delivery. There are also challenges around how to identify and respond to reform opportunities (including gender issues), and the sequencing of reconstruction efforts in different sectors. The challenges and opportunities vary widely depending on the type of conflict and peace process, so contextual knowledge is vital.
Page contents
Where is a good place to start?
The following paper warns of the need for humility from the international community when engaging in the complex field of state reconstruction.
Luckham, R., 2004, 'The International Community and State Reconstruction in War-torn Societies', Chapter 1 in After Intervention: Public Security Management in Post-Conflict Societies: From Intervention to Sustainable Local Ownership, Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), Geneva
What are the problems of state-reconstruction in war-torn societies? This paper from the Journal of Conflict, Security and Development, examines the role of international actors in the hugely ambitious project of rebuilding states after war.
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The following document provides practical guidance on rebuilding capacity and institutions in post-conflict situations, including electoral systems, parliamentary development, public administrative reform, and the justice and security sectors. In each case it introduces the likely challenges and offers entry points for programme design.
United Nations Development Programme / Chr. Michelsen Institute, Norway , 2004, Governance in Post-Conflict Situations, Background paper for working group discussions, Bergen Seminar, UNDP/CMI, Oslo
What is the best way to rebuild governance institutions and the rule of law following a conflict? How can nations rebuild trust and promote dialogue? This paper prepared by the Chr Michelsen Institute for the UNDP draws on recent experiences of post conflict governance in countries like Timor Leste and Afghanistan.
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World Bank, 2003, Building Capacity in Post-Conflict Countries, World Bank Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit, Social Development Notes no. 14, Washington
When conflicts end, both the local population and international community have high expectations that living conditions in a country will improve. To achieve this, capacity must be built up quickly. This article from the World Bank publication Social Development Notes argues that the best option is to create permanent capacity, and suggests lessons for more sustainable capacity building.
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This paper argues that a gender approach to all aspects of post-conflict reconstruction is vital in order to restore peace and prosperity.
Zuckerman, E. and Greenberg, M.E., 2004, The Gender Dimensions of Post-Conflict Reconstruction, Paper presented at the Making Peace Work Conference, WIDER, 4-5 June 2004
Why do post-conflict reconstruction (PCR) programmes need to address gender relations and equality? How can gender be ‘mainstreamed’ in PCR interventions? This draft conference paper by Gender Action considers gender, particularly the needs of women, in post-conflict situations. PCR programmes commonly fail to recognise and address gender issues. Investing in women and promoting gender equality are necessary both for maintaining peace and achieving sustainable development.
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The ECDPM's 2001 study of European Commission responses to conflict and fragile states generated the following set of lessons on timing, strategy, institutional arrangements and coherence.
Higazi, A., 2003, Dilemmas And Definitions In Post-Conflict Rehabilitation, European Centre for Development Policy Management (ECDPM), Maastricht
What are the major dilemmas of post-conflict reconstruction, and how can the European Union (EU) respond? This paper from the European Centre for Development Policy Management (ECDPM) discusses this question in the light of an ECDPM research project on assistance to six conflict-affected African countries. It argues there needs to be a higher tolerance of risk in post-conflict programmes and that flexibility, responsiveness and high levels of co-ordination are essential.
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Political systems
This section provides resources on efforts to rebuild, reform or create new political institutions in states affected by conflict. The resources cover activities to promote stable democracies, including constitutional and electoral arrangements and parliamentary strengthening.
State institutions can be severely weakened or subverted by conflicts. Conflicts are often caused by failures in political systems, including lack of legitimacy, political violence and political exclusion. As a result, reconstruction must respond to political grievances in order to ensure that conflicts between groups can be addressed within the political system. International interventions to rebuild state institutions after violent conflict involve challenging dilemmas. These include designing institutions that can accommodate intractable divisions, ensuring the participation of excluded groups, supporting local ownership and promoting legitimacy of political reforms, and tensions between short-term stability and the longer-term goals of reconciliation and democratisation.
This chapter concludes an edited volume about the challenges of constitutional design in several transitional contexts.
Bastian, S., and Luckham, R., 2003, 'Conclusion: The Politics of Institutional Choice,' in Can Democracy be Designed? The Politics of Institutional Choice in Conflict-Torn Societies, eds S. Bastian and R. Luckham, Zed Books, London
Can democracy be designed? Or are political constitutions always dependent on accident and force? This study looks at the situation in South Africa, Ghana, Uganda, Boznia-Herzogovina Sri Lanka and Fiji and suggests that there are no easy answers to these questions.
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The following paper provides a good overview of the challenges, dilemmas and dangers involved in post-conflict state reconstruction.
Cramer, C. and Goodhand, J., 2002, 'Try Again, Fail Again, Fail Better? War, the State and the 'Post-Conflict' Challenge in Afghanistan', Development and Change, vol. 33, no. 5, pp.885-909
Peace and reconstruction in Afghanistan require a significant expansion of institutionalised economic interdependence. This must build on existing patterns of interdependence, despite these being forged in a war economy. The article argues that an effective, centralised state, with a clear monopoly of violence, is necessary. This argument challenges standard international policy paradigms of reconstruction and points to an alternative basis for international engagement in Afghanistan.
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International IDEA produced this handbook of practical guidance on post-conflict democracy building, covering constitution building, electoral systems and human rights instruments, among other topics.
Harris, P., and Reilly, B., 1998, Democracy and Deep-Rooted Conflict. Options for Negotiators, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, Stockholm
How do we get an agreement at the negotiating table that will deliver a sustainable and peaceful outcome to a violent conflict? This handbook, by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA), offers practical advice to negotiators and politicians to assist them in creating durable solutions to long-term violent conflicts. It suggests that the process of negotiation, and the agreed outcomes, need to be structured so as to maximise the prospects of democracy taking root in the post-conflict period.
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The following is an introduction to the various aspects of electoral assistance, laying out dilemmas and lessons learned in post-conflict contexts. It includes an overview of debates about the relative advantages of consociational and 'centripetal' electoral systems for divided societies.
Reilly, B. 2004, Electoral Assistance and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding - What Lessons Have Been Learned? Paper presented at the WIDER Conference on Making Peace Work, 4-5 June 2004, Helsinki
Since the end of the Cold War, there has been an unprecedented growth in the number of electoral democracies, particularly in post-conflict societies. What lessons have been learned from the role of international assistance for elections in societies emerging from violent conflict? This paper from UNU/WIDER argues that the ‘quick fix’ approach to elections that is often promoted by international actors has created more problems than it has solved. International actors should focus on putting in place the short-term conditions for a transition to democratic rule by helping to create coherent and robust political institutions, rather than engaging in broader attempts at social engineering.
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The following is a good piece on the role of post-conflict elections in building peaceful politics.
Lyons, T., 2004, Post-Conflict Elections and the Process of Demilitarizing Politics: the Role of Electoral Administration, Democratization, Vol. 11, No.3
How can the process of peace implementation increase opportunities for post-conflict elections to promote the dual goals of war termination and democratisation? This article from the journal ‘Democratization’ tackles this question by examining interim regimes in general, and electoral administrations in particular, in seven post-conflict countries. It argues that when these institutions are based on joint problem solving and consultation they may demilitarise politics and help transform institutions to sustain peace and democratisation. The international community should put more emphasis on processes that shape how parties to conflict relate to each other during transition.
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This chapter from an edited volume explores ways in which democratic deficits can be tacked, to avoid inequalities leading to conflict, and to promote inclusive politics based on broad consent and common citizenship in countries emerging from identity-based conflict.
Luckham, R., Goetz, A. and Kaldor, M., 2003, 'Democratic Institutions and Democratic Politics' in Can Democracy be Designed? The Politics of Institutional Choice in Conflict-Torn Societies, eds S. Bastian and R. Luckham, Zed Books, London
Contemporary governance debates often assume the positive contribution of democracy to civil and political equality, poverty reduction, and conflict resolution. This paper makes a distinction between institutions and politics, seeking to demonstrate that the spread of democratic institutions does not guarantee the spread of democratic politics. This is argued on the basis of an analysis of the meanings of democracy and through an exploration of the potential of democracy for creating politics of inclusion, poverty reduction, and conflict resolution. The paper investigates ways in which democratic institutions can be designed to foster democratic politics that embody popular demands for participation, social justice and peace.
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Post-conflict public financial management
Post-conflict governments often experience constraints due to extremely limited resources and public financial management capacity. Violent conflict can have a severe impact on institutions, especially where public financial management systems have been undermined or bypassed during the conflict. Accountability often suffers particularly during conflicts.
Resources on public financial management in post-conflict contexts tend to focus on the management of security spending.
Ball, N. and Holmes, M., 2002, 'Integrating Defence Into Public Expenditure Work', Department for International Development, London
The importance of security to development has become widely recognised in recent years. This report, commissioned by the UK's Department for International Development (DFID), argues that donors need to accept security and the defence sector as one core component of a well functioning public sector and adjust their policies accordingly. The report presents options for the World Bank and other donors for incorporating the defence sector into public expenditure work.
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The following paper considers fiscal institutions and social contracts, considering how broad or narrow distribution of public resources can affect the chances for sustainable peace.
Addison, T. and Murshed, M., 2001. The Fiscal Dimensions of Post-Conflict Reconstruction UNU/WIDER Discussion Paper No. 2001/49
What are the fiscal dimensions of conflict? What are their implications for reconstruction? This paper by the United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research examines these questions using research on African conflicts. The authors find that fiscal dimensions are always significant even if they are not always the most important factor, and usually have a regional as well as combatant impact. There needs to be a better understanding of the incentives of fragile-state governments to improve fiscal institutions, and the role that conflict has in affecting their motivation.
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This document examines the role of oil in undermining financial accountability, and the impacts for governance and stability.
Gary, I. and Karl, T.L., 2003, Bottom of the Barrel: Africa's Oil Boom and the Poor, Catholic Relief Services, Baltimore
How can Africa’s oil boom contribute to alleviating poverty? What policy changes should be implemented to promote the management and allocation of oil revenues such that it will benefit ordinary Africans? This study from the Catholic Relief Services (CRS) assesses the new situation and argues that it offers great opportunity but also great peril for countries beset by wide-scale poverty.
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Aid policy and conflict-affected contexts
Development aid was traditionally suspended during violent conflicts, and assistance was limited to humanitarian relief until peace was restored. With increased awareness that violent conflicts do not follow set paths, and that some contexts involve complex and protracted crises, there has been a trend towards increased flexibility in donor approaches to conflict. This involves new aid instruments, which have been developed to deliver aid in the context of contested legitimacy, shadow institutions and capacity constraints caused by conflicts or fragile states.
The following report is a detailed examination of changing aid policy in response to protracted crises. Chapter five examines aid instruments in particular.
Harmer, A., ed., 2004, Beyond the Continuum. The Changing Role of Aid Policy in Protracted Crises, Humanitarian Policy Group Report No. 18, Overseas Development Institute, London
Until recently, assistance to countries in protracted crises was seen only in terms of humanitarian aid. This review by the Overseas Development Institute argues that there has been a shift in the linking of relief and development. It suggests that policy has moved towards areas of shared responsibility. However, it warns that humanitarian actors must communicate more clearly and fully the distinctiveness of their experience in these environments and work with development actors to explore common ground.
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The following considers the World Bank experience with multi-donor trust funds (MDTFs), one example of aid mechanisms developed for post-conflict situations.
Schiavo-Campo, S., 2003, Financing Aid Management in Post-Conflict Situations, CPR Working Paper Number 6, Social Development Department
What has been learned from financing post-conflict reconstruction? How should aid moneys be channelled and allocated? What is the architecture of the aid management entity of the recipient government? What is the proper interaction among donors and between donors and the government in post-conflict settings? How can the dilemma between short-term urgencies and longer-term institutional development be managed?
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This quantitative study from the World Bank analyses absorptive capacity in post-conflict countries. It finds that because of initial constraints to absorptive capacity, development assistance is most effective in the middle of the post-conflict decade. Yet, by this point, the funds available from donors have often declined.
Collier, P. and Hoeffler, A. 2002, Aid Policy and Growth in Post-Conflict Societies, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2902, Washington D.C.
Countries coming out of conflict are in atypical need of both financial resources and policy advice. Their societies are often extremely fragile and so it is important that the response of the international development community should be as appropriate as possible. However, have donor responses taken into consideration the special circumstances of post conflict societies to allocate aid? Has aid allocation been effective in those situations? Have these countries received aid and advice according to their particular needs?
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Service delivery
Post-conflict contexts tend to combine extensive and urgent demand for service delivery with weak institutions and severe financial constraints. Non-state providers may offer advantages where state institutions have been weakened and subverted during conflict. However, excessive reliance on non-state delivery may further undermine state capacity and ownership. Flexibility in approaches to service delivery in conflict-affected contexts is often emphasised as essential, in line with the protracted and complex nature of many violent conflicts. The old distinction between humanitarian relief and development assistance is increasingly rejected by policy makers, and there is increased attention to the challenges of effectively working in 'grey area' in between humanitarian relief and development assistance.
The following DFID report examines the challenge of maintaining services for poor people in conflict-affected areas of Nepal.
Armon, J. et al, 2004, Service Delivery in Difficult Environments: the Case of Nepal, Policy Division, Asia Policy Division, and the Nepal country office, Department for International Development
What are the challenges for service delivery in difficult environments? What lessons can be learnt from the conflict areas of Nepal? How effective are different strategies for delivering services to the poor and the vulnerable? This collaborative report from the DFID Nepal Office, Asia Policy Regional Policy Unit and DFID Policy Division (PD) describes the different approaches development agencies have used to support service delivery in Nepal and highlights key areas for future support.
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The following document traces the development of aid policy towards crises, and contrasts the 'relief-development continuum' agenda, developed during the 1990s, with more recent trends.
Harmer, A., ed., 2004, Beyond the Continuum. The Changing Role of Aid Policy in Protracted Crises, Humanitarian Policy Group Report No. 18, Overseas Development Institute, London
Until recently, assistance to countries in protracted crises was seen only in terms of humanitarian aid. This review by the Overseas Development Institute argues that there has been a shift in the linking of relief and development. It suggests that policy has moved towards areas of shared responsibility. However, it warns that humanitarian actors must communicate more clearly and fully the distinctiveness of their experience in these environments and work with development actors to explore common ground.
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These notes from the World Bank summarise preliminary lessons learned on civil service reform in conflict-affected contexts.
World Bank Conflict Prevention and Reconstruction Unit, Rebuilding the Civil Service in a Post-Conflict Setting. Key Issues and Lessons of Experience, World Bank, CPR Dissemination Note 1, March 2002
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The following DFID-commissioned study asks whether service delivery can help prevent conflict.
Vaux, T. and Visman, E., 2005, Service Delivery in Countries Emerging from Conflict, Bradford University, Report for Department for International Development, London
What is the role of service delivery in promoting social and political pro-poor change? How does it contribute to the avoidance of future conflict? How does it strengthen institutions in countries emerging from conflict? This report, by Bradford University, examines service delivery in Mozambique, Uganda, Cambodia and East Timor. It looks at the relationship between service delivery and violent conflict, showing how it changes. It tries to determine appropriate and sustainable service delivery systems.
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The following two documents are selections from the large literature on education delivery and conflict.
Smith, A., and Vaux, T., 2003, 'Education, Conflict and International Development', Department for International Development
What is the relationship between education and conflict, and how should the education sector respond to conflict? This paper, written for the Department for International Development, argues that more attention should be paid to the fact that education is not always a force for good and can sometimes help create the conditions for conflict. Donors need to consider this when allocating resources.
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Buckland, P., 2004, Reshaping the Future: Education and Post-Conflict Reconstruction, World Bank, Washington D.C.
What is the relationship between education systems and conflict? How should policymakers deal with education in post-conflict situations? This paper by the World Bank (WB) argues that schools are usually complicit in conflict. Simultaneously, reforming education is viewed as a critical element in the strategy to reduce the risk of conflict or relapse into conflict. Conflict presents not only challenges for reconstruction but also significant opportunities for reform of education systems.
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