Conflict

Conflict case studies - Africa

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Angola

After nearly half a century of conflict, Angola has reached a state of incomplete peace through military means. This collection of essays provides several perspectives on the nature of the conflict, the progress to peace and options for the future.

Meijer, G., 2004, 'From Military Peace to Social Justice: The Angolan Peace Process', Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives, Issue 15, Conciliation Resources, London
What lessons can be learned from the Angolan peace process? This report, published by Conciliation Resources in its Accord series, argues that the military peace brokered by the Angolan government may have consolidated their power as the victorious party, but that the 'peace through war approach' has hindered the process of democratisation, which relies on dialogue and negotiation. The secessionist war in the enclave of Cabinda further demonstrates that peace cannot be achieved through military force. A shift from military peace to social justice is needed to fully resolve conflict in Angola.
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Mozambique

After many years of conflict and extended peace negotiations, the General Peace Agreement for Mozambique was signed in 1992, marking the start of the transition to peace. The following resources cover in turn the origins of the conflict, the process of building peace and the development of the political party system and its implications for future democratisation.

Saul, J.S., 1999, 'Inside From the Outside? The Roots and Resolution of Mozambique's Un/Civil War', in Civil Wars in Africa: Roots and Resolution, Ch. 5, ed. T.M. Ali, pp. 122 - 166
This chapter, in Civil Wars in Africa: Roots and Resolution, outlines the roots of the Mozambican conflict by considering the relative importance of internal and external factors. This analysis leads to a consideration of how these parallel forces shaped the recent resolution of armed conflict, tracing the negotiations that lead to multi-party 'democratic' elections. In each stage of this peace process, it is demonstrated that both internal and external actors played prominent roles.
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Armon, J. (ed), 1998, 'The Mozambican Peace Process in Perspective', Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives, Issue Number 3, Conciliation Resources, London
An issue of 'Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives' brings together various articles recounting the history of Mozambique's anti-colonial and civil wars and the subsequent 1992 peace settlement. Mozambique's war was driven by both internal and external interests due to its links to the Cold War and conflicts with and among neighbouring states. Despite often unco-ordinated and incompatible agendas, the diverse initiatives by a wide range of state and non-state actors ensured the impetus of the peace process, resulting in the Rome talks and the 1992 General Peace Agreement (GPA). Future stability and reconciliation will depend on how successfully Mozambique's reconstruction process addresses both the poverty and political divisions that drove the war and the new tensions and trauma resulting from it.
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Carbone, G.M., 2003, 'Emerging Pluralist Politics in Mozambique: The Frelimo-Remano Party System', Crisis States Programme Development Research Centre, Working Paper 23, Series No. 1, LSE, London
Multi-party politics emerged as an instrument for peace in Mozambique in 1992, marking an end to violent civil conflict and heralding a new era of democratic change. However, multi-party democracy continues to suffer from a lack of legitimacy in Mozambique. This article, published by the London School of Economics, argues that the overall transition towards a fully democratic and pluralist system has been limited, and that the crucial test for democracy in Mozambique centres on the actual turnover of power in future elections.
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Burundi

Burundi has experienced several periods of violent conflict since independence; the most recent of these is the protracted civil conflict, which began in 1993. A long-running peace process has been assisted by high profile international figures. This article investigates economic interpretations for what is commonly considered an ethnic conflict.

Nkurunziza J. and Ngaruko F., 2000, 'An Economic Interpretation of Conflict in Burundi', Journal of African Economies, 9(3), pp. 370-409
What are the root causes of conflict in Burundi? This report commissioned by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) uses economic and political analyses to investigate the factors of the post-independence conflicts in Burundi. It argues that poverty, exclusion and the fight for control of limited resources have been underlying causes of the violence. To end the recurrence of war, the cycle of predation-rebellion-repression must be broken and there must be an end to impunity for war crimes.
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This document stresses the key role of the international donor community in building peace in Burundi:

International Crisis Group, 2003, 'A Framework For Responsible Aid To Burundi';, ICG Africa Report No. 57, ICG, Brussels
The Burundian people, economy, and state structures have suffered heavily from a decade of fighting. As a ceasefire is set in place and the peace process gains momentum, the time is ripe for the international community to resume aid programmes. But how can donors also play a role in building peace? This document by the International Crisis Group examines the need for responsible aid and offers extensive recommendations to donors and the wider international community for the key role they can play in Burundi.
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Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) 

The DRC has experienced two waves violent conflict since 1996, giving rise to the highest death toll of any African conflict. The transition to peace continues to be fraught with crises. This briefing paper gives a recent update of events in the DRC.

International Crisis Group, 'Pulling Back from the Brink in the Congo', Africa Briefing July 2004, ICG, Brussels
The optimism surrounding political transition in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has been short-lived. The outbreak of violence in the Bukavu in 2004 serves as a stark reminder of the fragility of the peace process. This briefing paper, by the International Crisis Group, argues that renewed peace-building efforts in the Kivu regions are crucial to bring about lasting peace and stability. Donors can assist by supporting the transitional government, strengthening the mandate of the UN mission and by increasing pressure on Rwanda to cease all military activity in the region.
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The following paper considers possibilities for peace-building that involve civilians not only as victims but as stakeholders in peace.

Kent, V. and McIntyre, A., 2004, 'From Protection to Empowerment: Civilians as Stakeholders in the Democratic Republic of the Congo', ISS Paper 84, Institute of Security Studies: South Africa
The importance of civilians as actors in conflict and supporters of the peace process needs to be acknowledged and re-defined if there is to be long-term stability and economic recovery in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). This paper by the Institute for Security Studies reveals the profound political importance of re-casting those perceived as 'victims' to understand and value their role as stakeholders, and suggests that the notion of mainstreaming must be broadened beyond the peacekeeping mandate to all aspects of the peace process.
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This paper critiques the involvement of regional states in the DRC conflict, particularly the role of the Southern African Development Community (SADC).

Ngoma, N., 2004, 'Hawks, Doves or Penguins? A Critical Review of the SADC Military Intervention in the DRC', Institute for Security Studies Occasional Paper 88, Institute for Security Studies
The military intervention in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in 1998 by only certain member states of the South African Development Community (SADC) raised questions about the state of this grouping. What has been the impact of the varying responses on sub-regional cohesion and stability? This paper by the Institute of Security Studies examines the decisions taken by important actors in SADC and analyses the implications for the survival and future of SADC.
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Rwanda

An estimated 800,000 Rwandans, mostly belonging to the minority Tutsi ethnic group, were killed within a period of 100 days in 1994. This article locates the genocide within the history of Rwandan state formation.

Mamandi, M., 1996, 'From Conquest to Consent as the Basis of State Formation: Reflections on Rwanda', New Left Review no. 216, pp. 3-36
This article studies the background of and options for the Rwandan genocide of 1994. It looks at the roots of the hostilities between the Bahutu and Batutsi and how relations shifted from one of Batutsi domination to their massacre at the hands of the Bahutu.
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This article takes a provocative approach to the genocide by exploring Tutsi responsibility leading up to the conflict:

Kuperman, A., 2003, 'Explaining the Ultimate Escalation in Rwanda: How and Why Tutsi Rebels Provoked a Retaliatory Genocide', Paper presented at The American Political Science Association Conference, Philadelphia, PA
The field of genocide studies has tended to focus on explaining the actions of the perpetrators and to ignore the role of victim groups and third parties. This paper, prepared for a meeting of the American Political Science Association, attempts to rectify the current bias by re-examining the roots of the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. It highlights the strategic interaction of ethnic groups and the international community.
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Uganda

Security for the people of Northern Uganda has been devastated by the brutality of the long running conflict between the Lord's Resistance Army and the Ugandan government. The following resources explore the reasons behind, and initiatives to end, the violence. 

Lomo, Z. and Hovil, L., 2004, 'Behind the Violence: The War in Northern Uganda', Monograph No 99, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, South Africa
What are the roots of conflict in northern Uganda? This monograph, by the Institute for Security Studies, argues that the war emerged on two fronts: initially as a popular rebellion against the ruling National Resistance Movement (NRM) and later transformed by the insurgency of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA). The protracted nature of the war has created new conflict dynamics and led to serious consequences such as mass displacement and a military response that often fails to protect civilians. These consequences sustain a cycle of violence.
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Lucima, O. (ed), 2002, 'Protracted Conflict, Elusive Peace: Initiatives to End the Violence in Northern Uganda', Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives, Issue 11, Conciliation Resources, London
Since 1986, the violent conflict in Acholiland region of Northern Uganda has caused countless deaths and violations of human rights, and the destruction of economic and social infrastructure. What peace initiatives have been undertaken so far? In this publication by Conciliation Resources' Accord Programme, different authors explore the history of the conflict, provide insight into the main parties involved, document key peace initiatives and analyse some of the cross-cutting issues.
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Liberia

Both of the following documents relate to Liberia's complex political emergency that lasted much of the 1990s. The first paper explores the causes and consequences of the complex political emergency.

Qutram, Q., 1999, 'Liberia: Roots and Fruits of the Emergency', Third World Quarterly, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 163 - 173
This paper discusses the origins and the political legacy of the 1990-1997 complex political emergency (CPE) in Liberia, a country which unlike most African states has never been a formal colony.
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This journal issue charts and analyses the peace processes of the Liberian conflict.

Armon, J. and Carl, A. 1996, 'The Liberian Peace Process,' Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives, vol. 1, no. 1., Conciliation Resources, London
This paper charts the progress of conflict resolution in Liberia. Hostilities began in 1989 when the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL) attempted to oust Liberia's then dictator, President Doe. The retaliation and resultant war were brutal, with numerous massacres of civilians - often along ethnic lines, as the army and rebel movement each comprised rival ethnic groups.
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Federal Republic of Nigeria: Strategic Conflict Assessment (SCA) Report, Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution, The Regent Ltd: Kaduna
Although Nigeria has been spared conflict on the scale experienced by many other African countries, it experiences a mass of relatively minor conflicts. This Strategic Conflict Assessment report from the Institute for Peace and Conflict Resolution, funded by DFID, UNDP, USAID and the World Bank, aimed to develop a deeper understanding of the underlying causes of conflict in Nigeria and to develop new policy responses. It focuses on the interaction between resource competition and the corruption of the political system, and calls for action in the overall area of conflict prevention.
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Nigeria

Nigeria has a long history of political instability and ethnic/religious tension. Since independence Nigeria has had 30 years of military rule, returning to civilian rule in 1999. This strategic conflict assessment analyses the causes, actors and dynamics of the conflict as well as responses and policy options.

This article focuses on Nigeria as a case study to understand ethnic conflict and proposes policy recommendations.

Leith, R. and Hussein, S., 2001, 'On Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict Management in Nigeria', African Journal on Conflict Resolution, 2 (1)
Ethnic conflict has been at the forefront of international political debates for the past decade. Is it possible to find practical solutions to reconcile diverse ethnic groups in the modern democratic state? This article examines the concept of ethnic conflict and the impact of variables such as governance, civil-military relations, economics and religion on ethnic identity. Through a case study of ethnic conflict in Nigeria, it advocates a ‘power-sharing model’ that promotes integration and co-operation as a means of overcoming differences and establishing a basis for dialogue.
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Zack-Williams, A.B. 1999, 'Sierra Leone: the Political Economy of Civil War, 1991 - 1998,' Third World Quarterly, vol. 20, no.1, pp.143 - 162
This report analyses Sierra Leone's political and economic history since independence to find out what lessons can be learnt. Violence and corruption became institutional under the All People's Congress, which governed for 23 years. This led to a break down of civil society and democratic accountability.
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Sierra Leone

Violence has played a leading role in Sierra Leone's post-independence history, recently characterised by the 1991-1997 civil war. This article explores the political and historical causal factors behind the recent conflict.

This paper provides a chronology of events up to 2002 and considers factors that supported peace-building initiatives in Sierra Leone.

Fitz-gerald, A.M., 2004, 'Security Sector Reform in Sierra Leone', Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform (GFN-SSR), Shrivenham, UK
There is a need for more comprehensive solutions to wider security sector challenges in conflict resolution. This report, from the Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform, provides an overview of the security reforms that were implemented in Sierra Leone. It serves as a set of guidelines for practitioners supporting similar programmes in the future. It argues that the different elements of a Security Sector Reform programme should be sequenced strategically.
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Somalia, Somaliland and Horn of Africa

Clan-based conflict has contributed to unrest in the Horn of Africa since the unification of Somalia by colonial powers on independence. This paper provides an overview of key actors, events and peace attempts of the long running conflict.

Cornwell, R., 2004, 'Somalia: Fourteenth Time Lucky?', Occasional Paper 87, Institute for Security Studies
Somalia is one of the ongoing nation-building exercises which seems to have established itself as a permanent feature on the international landscape. After a succession of failed attempts, what is the likelihood that the current round of negotiations will achieve sustainable results? Compiled for the Institute for Security Studies, this paper provides an account of modern Somali history, charting the perennial problems that have dogged peace negotiations and that seem likely to impede nation-building endeavours for some time to come.
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This article examines peace-building and governance experiences in Somaliland and the implications for Somalia.

Jama, M.A., 2003, 'Somalia and Somaliland: Strategies for Dialogue and Consensus on Governance and Democratic Transition', Paper Prepared for the UNDP Oslo Governance Centre
How can a peaceful democratic state be built out of several clan-based, faction ridden, territorial entities? This paper, prepared for the UNDP Oslo Governance Centre, examines peace building in Somaliland and looks at its experience of forging effective institutions of governance. Set in the context of a review of the collapse of Somalia as a unified state, it offers lessons and implications for Somalia as a whole.
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The following paper identifies the causes of conflicts, obstacles to and prospects for peace processes across the horn of Africa, including Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia.

Nyuot Yoh, J.G., 2003, 'Peace Processes and Conflict Resolution in the Horn of Africa', African Security Review, 12(3), pp. 83-93
Discussion of the issues of war, peace and development in the Horn of Africa require critical analysis of the situation in each country (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia). How can just and lasting solutions to the conflicts in this region be found? What are the initiatives and obstructions to peace, both regionally and in each country? This paper published in the African Security Review of the Institute for Security Studies in South Africa evaluates the peace process in the region.
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Sudan

Sudan has suffered one of Africa's longest civil wars. This article discusses competing perceptions of the conflict and the potential for peace.

Sudan also currently faces a humanitarian crisis and allegations of genocide in the Darfur region. This report provides background to the development of the conflict in Darfur and the key actors involved.

International Crisis Group, 2004, 'Darfur Rising: Sudan's New Crisis', ICG Africa Report No 76, ICG, Nairobi/Brussels
The Intergovernmental Authority for Development (IGAD) peace talks in Kenya between the government of Sudan and the insurgent Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) face deadlock. The steadily worsening, ethnically polarised conflict in Darfur forms the biggest threat to the IGAD peace process and the stability of the country as a whole. This paper by the International Crisis Group offers recommendations to Sudanese and international players aimed at addressing the conflict that would risk the lives of some 7 million people.
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