Climate change adaptation

Adaptation response measures II: Policies and programmes

Page contents:

• Introduction
• Social policies for adaptation: Social protection and risk transfer
• Community-based adaptation and livelihood support
• Disaster risk reduction
• Ecosystem-based adaptation
• Low carbon and climate resilient development
• Additional online resources

Introduction

For the most part, existing adaptation response measures maintain a sectoral and technical focus (e.g water, infrastructure, agriculture etc.) and pay insufficient attention to indirect risks and impacts on vulnerability. Figure 2 illustrates common types of adaptation activity as identified by research from the World Resources Institute (McGray, Hammil and Bradley, 2007). This section of the climate change adaptation topic guide presents a selection of emerging approaches which take a more nuanced view of vulnerability and target different social groups (see vulnerability of different social groups). 

GSDRC 2010, 'Climate Change, Empowerment and Accountability', Helpdesk Research Report, GSDRC, Birmingham
This helpdesk research report looks at how climate change policies and programmes (particularly for adaptation) can best respond to the needs of the most vulnerable. The general consensus appears to be that this requires a combination of: a) greater investment in community-based adaptation, b) more decentralised planning, and d) stronger mechanisms to link community-level decision-making with national and international policy processes. Although strictly speaking beyond the remit of this report, it also includes resources on how to make the global funding architecture for climate change more accountable as well as a small selection of literature which looks at how social policies can support adaptation.
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McGray, H., Hammil, A. and Bradley R., 2007, ‘Weathering the Storm: Options for Framing Adaptation and Development’ , World Resources Institute, Washington DC
How can climate change adaptation and development become mutually reinforcing? This report reviews over a hundred case studies to explore the link between adaptation and development. It concludes that the relationship between the two concepts has never been properly articulated, resulting in missed opportunities for collaboration. Donors need to incorporate adaptive strategies into their development planning, particularly in fostering accountable decision-making processes and in reducing the vulnerability of populations to climate change impacts.
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Jones, L., Jaspars, S., Pavanello, S., Ludi, E., Slater, R., Arnall, A., Grist, N. and Mtisi, S., 2010, 'Responding to a Changing Climate: Exploring How Disaster Risk Reduction, Social Protection and Livelihoods Approaches Promote Features of Adaptive Capacity’, Working Paper 319, ODI, London
How can other humanitarian and development approaches help enhance communities’ capacity to adapt to a changing climate? This paper examines which aspects of disaster risk reduction, social protection and livelihoods approaches can contribute to adaptive capacity and how these approaches can better respond to climate change and facilitate adaptation. While recognising that each approach has its distinct niche and strength, it argues that, as a collective, the three together can help in promoting certain features of adaptive capacity.
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Global climate change poses unique and disproportionately large challenges for many small island developing states. The following document outlines key challenges and potential responses:

Maas, A., and Carius, A., 2011, 'Creating Space for Action: Options for Small Island States to Cope with Global Environmental Change', Migration and Global Environmental Change Foresight Project, Government Office for Science, London
This paper notes that climate change may create new pressures for small island states (such as severe ocean acidification) and intensify others (such as sea-level changes) in a comparatively short, yet unpredictable, amount of time. Internal relocation and migration is a tested adaptation practice for such states, which already have well-established migration links. However, with greater access to financial resources – by increasing the extent to which island states profit from fishing or mining concessions, for example – and by investing in people and knowledge, states can reduce the need for future relocation.
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Social policies for adaptation: Social protection and risk transfer

It is increasingly recognised that a range of social policies are necessary, both to ensure that sectoral adaptation interventions are made more equitable, and to support poorer households and communities to cope with current and future weather extremes and manage climate risks. With regard to the latter, social protection - including asset and cash transfers, social pensions and employment guarantee schemes - is seen as holding significant promise given that it shares with adaptation the central objective of strengthening resilience to shocks and stresses. In order for social protection programmes to successfully address climate change impacts, it is recognised that they will need to focus on transforming rather than simply restoring livelihoods, take a longer-term perspective, address underlying issues of marginalisation and exclusion, and develop effective ways of targeting those most at risk of climate change impacts. The concept of adaptive social protection (see Arnall et al., 2010) is one recent attempt to construct a framework which incorporates some of these elements. This additional layer of complexity, however, presents significant political challenges, especially given the uncertainties associated with predicting climate change impacts. Nevertheless, an emphasis on shared equity and justice arguments for both adaptation and social protection interventions may strengthen the case for greater synergies between the two.

Risk transfer approaches, including index or weather insurance and disaster funds are also receiving increasing attention in the context of adaptation to climate change. These are advocated on the grounds that they can provide timely and predictable payouts following an extreme event, enable greater access to credit, technology and livelihoods inputs, incentivize risk reduction activities and provide space for longer-term development planning. However, a number of questions remain about the appropriateness, cost-effectiveness, and affordability of such measures and about how tools will deal with increasingly frequent and intense events on the one hand, and longer term, and more predictable risks such as sea-level rise and desertification on the other. Furthermore there are concerns about how effective these initiatives are at targeting the most vulnerable and about the level of community and civil society participation and ownership. Crucially, for any risk transfer intervention to be successful it must be part of a broader framework which places the emphasis on disaster risk reduction through awareness raising, information dissemination and community participation (see disaster risk reduction).

Arnall, A., Oswald, K., Davies, M., Mitchell, T. and Coirolo, C., 2010, ‘Adaptive Social Protection: Mapping the Evidence and Policy Context in the Agriculture Sector in South Asia’, IDS Working paper 345, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton
The concept of Adaptive Social Protection (ASP) has been developed in an attempt to combine the three prominent approaches to vulnerability reduction – social protection (SP), disaster risk reduction (DRR) and climate change adaptation (CCA). This paper provides an initial assessment of the ways in which these elements are being brought together in development policy and practice. It does this through a meta-analysis of 124 agricultural programmes implemented in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan. The findings show that full integration of SP, DRR and CCA is relatively limited in south Asia, although there has been significant progress in combining SP and DRR in the last ten years.
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GSDRC, 2008, ‘Climate Change and Social Protection’, Helpdesk Research Report, GSDRC, Birmingham 
This helpdesk report identifies the following as the primary coping strategies and protection measures of most relevance to climate change: Compensation mitigation measures, such as microinsurance and weather-risk crop insurance. In some cases, safety net approaches (e.g. public works, school feeding programmes) are linked to insurance payouts; Ex-ante adaptation measures, such as crop diversification (e.g. technical assistance, starter packs, seed fairs), irrigation systems, flood safe storage facilities, relocation, livelihood diversification and protection (e.g. legislated employment guarantees); Ex-post adaptation measures, such as cash transfers (e.g. unconditional cash payments, social pensions, child support grants), asset restocking/ sale of assets (e.g. ‘meat aid’ programmes, where the weakest animals are sold for cash), nutritional/feeding programmes.
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Heltberg, R., Jorgensen, S. L., and Siegel, P. B., 2008, ‘Climate Change, Human Vulnerability, and Social Risk Management’, The Social Development Department, World Bank
How can interventions increase society's capacity to manage climate risks, reducing household vulnerability while maintaining or improving opportunities for development? This paper presents a social risk management and asset-based conceptual framework to help design such interventions. An integrated, multisectoral approach is needed to manage both direct and indirect climate risks. This requires greater collaboration among professionals working on disasters, climate change, and social policy, including shared platforms around definitions, data, monitoring, research, and capacity building. In terms of social protection, index-based insurance and combinations of insurance and safety net approaches hold promise, but the limits to what insurance can achieve need to be kept in mind.
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Hellmuth, M.E., Osgood, D.E., Hess, U., Moorhead, A. and Bhojwani, H. (eds), 2009, ‘Index Insurance and Climate Risk: Prospects for Development and Disaster Management’, Climate and Society No. 2. International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), Columbia University, New York
Variable and unpredictable climate can limit development and amplify poverty, particularly in the developing world. The potential of index insurance to help manage climate variability is being tested in a growing number of developing country settings. This report discusses this new type of insurance, presents case studies and outlines key lessons and recommendations. It finds that index insurance has provided access to credit and insurance for high-risk populations previously considered uninsurable, contributing to economic development and poverty reduction. It has also played a role in providing more timely and reliable disaster relief.
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Suarez, P. and Linnerooth-Bayer, J., 2010, ‘Micro Insurance for Local Adaptation’, Wires Climate Change, Vol. 1 March/April, pp 271-278
How can micro-insurance programmes reduce developing countries' vulnerability to climate change? This paper examines a micro-insurance pilot project in Malawi. The project provides a loan guarantee that enables farmers to access higher-yield seeds. By raising productivity, it decreases their vulnerability to droughts. Findings also show that micro-insurance in Malawi can directly promote adaptation by actually reducing crop losses from drought. This is possible by incorporating into insurance pricing seasonal rainfall forecasts, which are strongly related to El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
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Godfrey Wood, R., 2011, ‘Is there a Role for Cash Transfers in Climate Change Adaptation?’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 42, no.6, pp.79-85
This article argues that cash transfers are likely to contribute to adaptive capacity by: (1) meeting basic needs; (2) helping the poor respond to climate-related shocks; (3) helping vulnerable households manage risk and consider investment innovations that increase their adaptive capacity; (4) transferring money for investment in long-term adaptive capacity development; and (5) facilitating mobility and livelihood transitions. While cash transfers cannot address all areas of adaptation, they may be necessary for further adaptation to be equitable and effective. Cash transfers are supported by a substantial evidence base, do not require much climate-related information, can be scaled up and are likely to gain local acceptance.
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Community-based adaptation and livelihood support

Community-based adaptation (CBA) is an emerging bottom-up approach to climate change adaptation based on the priorities, experiences, knowledge and capacities of local people. It draws on participatory approaches developed in both disaster risk reduction and community development work. The focus of CBA is on empowering communities to take action themselves based on existing vulnerabilities, coping strategies and decision-making processes. Whilst, in practice, CBA projects may not appear to differ greatly from mainstream development projects, CBA aims to factor in the potential impact of climate change on livelihoods and vulnerability to disasters by combining local and scientific knowledge.

Both the theory and practice of CBA are still relatively new. As the large number of CBA pilot projects is evaluated, lessons are emerging about what does and doesn’t work and where improvements need to be made. Criticisms include the fact that projects to date have often advanced livelihood diversification strategies without proper consideration of the range of strategies available or the socio-political context, and have not given sufficient attention to disaggregating poverty and vulnerability within communities and hence to tailoring adaptation measures appropriately. In this respect it has been suggested that CBA can learn a great deal from the wealth of existing knowledge on sustainable livelihoods, development and rural poverty.

Other challenges relate to the availability and credibility of climate change information and data at the community level, the quality of participatory processes in CBA, the concept of ‘community’, and the inherent tension between devolved decision-making and the need for centralised monitoring and evaluation in the context of global adaptation funding.  Furthermore, it is increasingly recognised that CBA interventions need to be placed within broader efforts to strengthen institutions and create an enabling environment for local enterprise development and access to information, credit, land, health care and education.

Reid, H., Alam, M., Berger, R., Cannon, T., Huq, S., and Milligan, A., 2009, ‘Community-based Adaptation to Climate Change: An Overview’ Chapter 1 in Community-based Adaptation to Climate Change’, Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) series, no. 60, International Institute for Environment and Development, London What are the lessons and challenges emerging from community-based approaches (CBA) to climate change adaptation? This paper examines community-led processes that build on the priorities, knowledge and capacities of local people. There is still a lot of 'doing to' by international institutions rather than communities taking charge. It is important to find ways to allow poor vulnerable people to influence policy and be heard in key policy arenas. For example, programmes should link communities to relevant decision-making bodies. They will also need to build the capacity of local organisations to enable them to take part effectively in decision-making processes.
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Ensor, J. and Berger, R., 2009, ‘Community-based Adaptation in Practice’, Chapter 10 in Understanding Climate Change Adaptation. Lessons from Community-Based Approaches’, Practical Action Publishing, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby
How can local communities best be supported to adapt to climate change? How can an enabling policy context be established in order to scale-up adaptation? This chapter assesses community-based approaches to climate change adaptation in Asia, Africa and Latin America. It finds that vulnerability to climate change is linked to the ability to access and control resources and to the opportunity and skills to influence decisions that affect people's livelihoods. The principal threat to creating communities that can adapt successfully to climate change is institutional and political marginalisation; Governance and policy frameworks must be transformed in order to address exclusion.
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Sabates-Wheeler, R., Mitchell, T. and Ellis, F., 2008, ‘Avoiding Repetition: Time for CBA to Engage with the Livelihoods Literature?’, IDS Bulletin 39:4
What can the community-based adaptation (CBA) approach learn from the well-established livelihoods literature? How can repetition of research and projects be minimised? The overlap of CBA with the livelihoods, development and rural poverty literatures provides opportunities for CBA to nuance its overly-simplistic approach to conceptualising and implementing sustainable social and economic development. Synergies must be found that maximise both the productivity of livelihoods and the ecological sustainability of the community; CBA and livelihoods researchers and practitioners need to work together. Social protection and enabling environments seem promising avenues to explore.
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For guidance on implementing community-based adaptation, see project-level adaptation tools.

Disaster risk reduction

The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) defines disaster risk reduction (DRR) as:  “the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyse and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events” (UNISDR, 2009, ‘UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction’).

At its core, DRR shares with climate change adaptation the aim of reducing the impacts of shocks by anticipating risks and addressing vulnerabilities.  However, there are also a number of important differences. Most significantly, adaptation considers long-term changes in average climatic conditions, whereas DRR focuses on extremes. Unlike adaptation, DRR also encompasses geophysical risks (e.g. volcanoes and earthquakes). Furthermore, whereas adaptation responses are based on projections of future impacts rooted in climate science, DRR builds primarily on past experience and existing local knowledge. Finally, because the global policy framework for climate change is far stronger, adaptation tends to command higher political interest and hence larger funding streams. 

Nevertheless, it is increasingly recognised that there are important benefits to be gained from greater collaboration between the two fields. These include the potential for a reduction of climate-related losses through more widespread implementation of DRR measures, more efficient use of limited resources, and increased effectiveness and sustainability of both adaptation and DRR approaches. More specifically, the range of DRR methods and tools which already exist to predict weather related hazards and to assess risks based on the vulnerability of different social groups, social-ecological systems and infrastructure are highly relevant for adaptation to more frequent extreme events. At the same time, greater awareness of the longer term impacts of climate change has led to the recognition that the objectives of DRR need to go beyond restoring communities affected by disasters to their pre-disaster condition and to focus instead on the opportunities that disasters provide to create long-term resilience.

There are, nevertheless, a number of institutional challenges to greater integration and collaboration which need to be overcome, including: the large number of different actors involved in both DRR and adaptation, the tension between short-term funding for DRR and long-term financial support needed for adaptation, limited capacity to predict extreme events linked to climate change, and a limited understanding of how disaster response measures affect the long-term adaptive capacity of communities.

Birkmann, J., Tetzlaff, G. and Zentel, K-O., 2009, ‘Addressing the Challenge: Recommendations and Quality Criteria for Linking Disaster Risk Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Change’, German Committee for Disaster Reduction (DKKV), Bonn
How can the international community accelerate progress on climate change adaptation while ensuring sustainable development? This report argues that the increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events requires the proactive implementation of new tools to accelerate climate change adaptation. Disaster risk reduction methods should be linked with adaptation strategies to provide affected regions with the capacity and funding both to recover from extreme weather events and to create long-term resilience and sustainable development.
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Mitchell, T., van Aalst, A. and Villanueva, P.S., 2010, ‘Assessing Progress on Integrating Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation in Development Processes’, Strengthening Climate Resilience Discussion Paper 2, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton
What progress has been made in the convergence of disaster risk reduction (DRR) and climate change adaptation (CCA)? What are the obstacles to further integration? This assessment identifies pockets and trajectories of integration that promise improved development outcomes. However, it also finds continued separation of DRR, CCA and development in some geographic areas and significant structural barriers to convergence in critical institutions at different scales.
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Mercer, J., 2010, 'Disaster Risk Reduction or Climate Change Adaptation: Are We Reinventing the Wheel?', Journal of International Development, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 247–264
What are the similarities and differences between Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA)? What can be learned from experiences of both approaches in Papua New Guinea (PNG)? This paper analyses the two approaches and draws on experience from PNG in recommending ways to integrate both in development policy. The research demonstrates the importance of a holistic response to all underlying vulnerability factors, as opposed to focusing on one hazard or factor such as climate change. It would appear most effective, financially and otherwise, to embed CCA within existing DRR tools. This is as opposed to developing tools and methodologies for CCA separately and integrating these with DRR at a later date.
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Gero, A., Méheux, K., Dominey-Howes, D., 2010, ‘Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation in the Pacific: The Challenge of Integration’, Australian Tsunami Research Centre & Natural Hazards Research Laboratory, Sydney 
What are the challenges in integrating community-based disaster risk reduction (DRR) and climate change adaptation (CCA)? This research investigates the current situation and thinking on integrating DRR and CCA in community based projects in the Pacific. A key finding is the importance of agency and the significance of building and maintaining good relationships between DRR and CCA practitioners across sectors, including the government, NGOs and donors. A common barrier to integrating DRR and CCA is the multitude of organisations engaged in related initiatives.
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Wilkinson, E., 2012, 'Transforming Disaster Risk Management: A Political Economy Approach', ODI Background Note Series, Overseas Development Institute, London
This paper examines recent work by disaster researchers on the complex role of institutional arrangements in shaping policy decisions. It identifies incentive structures, information gaps and intra-governmental relations as key factors affecting the decisions of national and local authorities. It recommends more interdisciplinary research on political processes and policy change to develop a clearer theoretical focus for Disaster Risk Management, so as to help promote the necessary institutional transformation.
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IPCC, 2012, 'Summary for Policymakers' in Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation, A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA, pp.1-19
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For guidance on implementing DRR programmes, see project-level adaptation tools.

Ecosystem-based adaptation

Ecosystem-based adaptation involves the sustainable management, conservation and restoration of ecosystems and the habitats, natural resources, and services they provide to help people adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change. Examples of ecosystem-based adaptation strategies include:  managing water resources for water storage and flood regulation; restoring coastal habitats as a natural defence against storm-surges, saline intrusion and coastal erosion; managing grasslands to increase resilience to drought and flooding; using  indigenous knowledge to maintain the diversity of agricultural systems, crops and livestock in changing local climatic conditions; and managing shrublands and forests to limit the frequency and size of uncontrolled fires.

Ecosystem-based adaptation is often advanced as a cost-effective alternative to physical engineering structures and is seen as closely aligned with the principles and objectives of community-based adaptation. Local participation in planning and implementation is key to the success of the approach, as is collaboration between a broad range of stakeholders including indigenous communities, conservationists, natural resource managers, the private sector, and development and humanitarian specialists.

World Bank, 2010, ‘Ecosystem-Based Adaptation: Reducing Vulnerability’, Chapter 3 in Convenient Solutions to an Inconvenient Truth. Ecosystem-Based Approaches to Climate Change, World Bank, Washington DC 
How can ecosystem-based adaptation help societies to cope with climate change challenges? This paper contends that ecological stresses such as land degradation and decreases in biodiversity exacerbate the vulnerability of certain populations to the impact of climate change. Societies (particularly in developing countries) must invest in preserving and restoring local ecosystems to act as natural barriers against extreme weather events and climate conditions. Ecosystem-based approaches are low-cost, long-proven, and low-technology solutions to many anticipated climate change impacts. They can complement existing adaptation efforts, and better engage local communities in protecting their environments.
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Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2009, ‘The Linkages between Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation’, Chapter 2 in Review of the Literature on the Links between Biodiversity and Climate Change - Impacts, Adaptation and Mitigation, CBD Technical Series No. 42, CBD Secretariat, Montreal 
What is the role of biodiversity in climate change adaptation? How can the impacts of climate change be mitigated without adversely affecting biodiversity? Adaptation strategies tend to focus on technological, social and economic developments. They overlook the links between biodiversity and adaptation. There needs to be greater consideration of synergies between the two in adaptation policy and planning. Most importantly, there needs to be improved understanding of the underpinning role of biodiversity, to avoid maladaptation and to develop cost-effective responses to climate change.
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REDD-net, 2010, ‘REDD+ and Adaptation to Climate Change’, REDD-net, ODI, London 
REDD stands for 'reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation', and is an important element of global policies to address climate change. 'REDD+' is similar to REDD, but includes other activities, such as the sustainable management of forests and the enhancement of forest carbon stocks. This infosheet gives an overview the links between REDD+ and adaptation. It describes how some of the linkages between the two issues are being understood, some of the opportunities and risks, and highlights further information sources on the issue.
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Attempts to embed the long-term economic benefits of ecosystem services within broader economic models and decision making have generated interest in ‘Payment for Environmental Services’ (PES) programmes. These incorporate the regulating and provisioning functions of ecosystems into decision-making processes.

Wertz-Kanounnikoff, S. et al., 2011, 'Ecosystem-based Adaptation to Climate Change: What Scope for Environmental Services?', Climate and Development, vol. 3, no. 2, pp.143-158
This article analyses the opportunities and constraints of payments for environmental services (PES) as an instrument for ecosystem-based adaptation. It finds that PES is not suitable for all environmental services and country contexts, but can be a promising adaptation policy instrument where certain preconditions are met and synergies prevail.
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Low carbon and climate resilient development

Low-carbon development (LCD), sometimes referred to as low carbon growth, broadly refers to efforts to decouple greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from economic growth. It encompasses a range of actions which aim to reduce emissions through changes in both production and consumption patterns. To date the focus of LCD has been on high and middle income countries. However, it is increasingly recognised that without action from the developing world, efforts to limit global temperature change to less than 2°C will be ineffective. From a development perspective, a key concern is to understand the distributional effects of LCD strategies and how they will impact on the poor.

There is also some concern over the limited attention that has been paid to the linkages between LCD and adaptation. In this context, attention is now shifting towards climate resilient growth, broadly defined as patterns of development that help build an economy’s resilience in a future changing climate. There is still a limited understanding of what climate resilient development might involve in practice however, although key elements are likely to include shifts away from climate sensitive sectors such as agriculture and better long-term planning and policy to reduce vulnerability. Furthermore, it is unclear to what extent low carbon growth and climate resilient growth require similar policies or whether they will involve conflicts and trade-offs.

Pye, S., Watkiss, P., Savage, M. and Blyth, W., 2010, ‘The Economics of Low Carbon, Climate Resilient Patterns of Growth in Developing Countries: A Review of the Evidence,’ Report to DFID, Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm
To what extent can developing countries move towards low carbon growth without compromising economic development? This study reviews the literature on the economics of climate change. It finds that all countries need to act decisively in order to reduce emissions, and that preventing economic growth targets from increasing emissions will require significant additional investment. However, these extra costs may not be prohibitive, and low carbon patterns of growth may offer opportunities for developing countries. These include improving efficiency and lowering energy costs, developing low carbon industries, improving technology, raising carbon finance through international mechanisms and safeguarding natural resources.
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Urban, F., 2010, ‘The MDGs and Beyond: Can Low Carbon Development be Pro-poor?’, IDS Bulletin 41:1
Can low carbon development be pro-poor? This article explores several policy responses to the Low Carbon Development (LCD) debate and analyses how pro-poor they are. It argues that poverty reduction must be linked to LCD as part of a post-2015 Millennium Development Goal agenda. There is no explicit pro-poor concern or consideration of equity in the current LCD debate.
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Ellis, K. et al., 2010, ‘Growth in a Carbon Constrained Global Economy,’ ODI, London
How will the economies of developing countries be affected by efforts to deal with climate change? This report examines the impact of international mitigation policies on economic opportunities in developing countries. Greater understanding of the impacts of different mitigation policies on developing countries is needed to inform the decision-making of developed country policymakers'. More importantly, such understanding can help developing countries to start taking advantage of new opportunities and to protect themselves from new risks arising from mitigation. Donors need to increase support for developing countries' low carbon growth efforts, and compensate countries where they lose out from international mitigation efforts.
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UNDP, 2009, Charting a New Low-Carbon Route to Development’,  A Primer on Integrated Climate Change Planning for Regional Governments,  United Nations Development Programme, New York
How can sub-national governments incorporate climate change into their planning? This Primer argues for systematic action across all levels of long-term development planning and cross-sectoral implementation (regional, national, sub-national and local). It introduces approaches to help sub-national authorities design an Integrated Territorial Climate Plan (ITCP), from setting objectives and participatory arrangements for the preparation of the Plan, to financing priority activities. Meeting the challenge of climate change will require the full engagement of regional and local governments, and the formulation of innovative policy development and planning instruments. Comprehensive partnerships and strong coordination mechanisms will be needed.
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Additional online resources

• The Adaptive Social Protection (ASP) programme at the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) is developing an approach that combines key elements of social protection, disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation as a means to increase the livelihoods resilience of the poorest and most vulnerable people.
• The Munich Climate Insurance Initiative (MCII) is a project initiated by Munich Re which brings together insurers, climate change and adaptation experts, NGOs, and policy researchers to share insurance-related expertise applied to climate change issues.
• The Community Based Adaptation Exchange (CBA-X) is a shared online resource designed to bring together the CBA community. It provides a site for the exchange of up-to-date information about community-based adaptation, including news, events, case-studies, tools, policy resources, and videos.
• The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) is the secretariat of the ISDR system, a strategic framework, adopted by UN Member States in 2000 to guide and coordinate the efforts to achieve substantive reduction in disaster losses and build resilient nations and communities. UNISDR serves as the focal point for the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) – a ten year plan of action adopted in 2005 by 168 governments to protect lives and livelihoods against disasters.
• ProVention is a global coalition of international organisations, governments, the private sector, civil society organisations and academic institutions working on disaster risk reduction. Although ProVention’s programme activities are to be phased out in 2010, the website will be maintained to highlight resources that have been developed through ProVention projects and related partners initiatives.
• The International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) programme on Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) works to promote the inclusion of EbA in relevant national plans and policies related to adaptation and in the Adaptation Framework being discussed under the UNFCCC.
• The UNDP Portal on Low Carbon and Climate Resilient Development aims to disseminate knowledge and expertise in developing the capacity of national and sub-national governments to formulate, finance, and implement low-carbon and climate change-resilient strategies (LCCRS).

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