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This study examines citizen participation in various Western countries. It shows that citizen involvement produces a number of benefits, which vary according to the type of democratic innovation. However, since these positive effects are perceptible only to those taking part, and the number of participants is often small, the benefits to individual democratic citizenship are far more conclusive than the benefits to democracy as a whole.

Citizen participation is usually considered a valuable element of democratic citizenship and democratic decision-making. Theorists claim that it has positive effects on the quality of democracy and, over recent decades, many countries have gained experience with referendums, citizens' forums, citizens' juries, collaborative governance, participatory budgeting and other models in which citizens have a more direct say.

These democratic innovations can be grouped into four main types: deliberative forums, surveys, referendums and participatory policymaking projects. Participation in these can have an influence on various elements of democracy, such as on decision-making, inclusion, skills and virtues, deliberation and legitimacy:

• Deliberative forums and surveys are better at promoting the exchange of arguments and a willingness to shift preferences
• Referendums and participatory policymaking projects are better at giving citizens influence on policymaking and involving more people
• Citizen participation contributes to democratic citizenship: it has a positive effect on individuals' development of knowledge, skills, and virtues, no matter which form of citizen participation is examined
• Involved citizens generally have positive attitudes about the process and the outcome, whereas those who do not participate are less supportive.

In order to understand the contribution of different forms of citizen participation to democracy it is important to distinguish between a focus on outcome and decision-making versus process and opinion formation. Citizens participating in referendums and participatory policymaking have more of an impact on policy than do participants in deliberative surveys and deliberative forums. In addition:

• There is a tension between the quality and the quantity of participation. Deliberative forums and surveys are better at promoting the exchange of arguments, while referendums and participatory policymaking projects are better at involving more people.
• The number of people becoming involved represents a relatively small portion of the population, and particular groups are often under-represented.
• It is not clear whether citizen participation enhances democracy as a whole or whether citizen participation projects also lead to more support, deliberation or skills among those who do not take part.