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Most African states are heterogenous entities composed of culturally distinct groups, none of which forms a majority, competing for resources and power. The global surge in the number and violence of ongoing ethnic or religious conflicts in recent decades demonstrates the continuing relevance of communal identities for contemporary politics. Ethnic tensions in Africa usually occur within national borders, producing the internal instability that has plunged states such as Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Rwanda and Sudan into civil war.

This survey of the factors leading to conflict and cooperation in Africa yields the following observations:

• Those states among the cases studied which had high levels of literacy tended to have fewer conflicts, or none at all, when compared to states with low literacy levels.
• Fair elections can do much to prevent ethnic tension and conflict. African scholars have noted smooth electoral transitions in South Africa, Ghana and Senegal. The botched 1994 elections in Nigeria, the freest and fairest there to date, would have lessened ethnic rivalry if they had prevailed.
• Leadership that is firm, fair and progressive will contribute to ethnic cooperation. An example is Paul Kagame’s leadership in Rwanda, where he has managed to move the country from deep division to cooperation.
• The presence or absence of visionary and charismatic leaders, greatly affects the escalation or erosion of ethnic conflict.

The achievement of the key tenets for cooperation—high literacy rates, fair elections, equity and justice—is an internal matter for African countries to address.

• It would be more fruitful for Africans to identify the sources of ethnic tension in their current politics rather than to look to the past and focus on colonialism.
• Similarly, neo-colonialism is not responsible for the corruption and partisanship of most African governments, which have left ordinary people feeling suspicious of their leaders.
• A case like Rwanda demonstrates that ethnic relations can be repaired even after gruesome ethnic conflict.